This paper looks at the status of Non Timber Forest Products in Botswana (NTFPs). Botswana has extensive natural resources, most of which are NTFPs (known as veld products in Botswana). The current situation will be looked at and proposals will be put forward on how these NTFPs may be utilised on a sustainable basis.
Botswana is a landlocked country situated in the Southern African Plateau with al mean elevation of 900m above sea level. The climate varies between subtropical arid and semi-arid with annual rainfall averaging 655mm in the north of the country and up to 250mm in the south. Of the total land area of 582,000 square km's, (an area roughly the size of France), only 6% is suitable for arable agriculture with the rest of the land being covered by Kalahari sands. The country's main miombo woodlands, (forested areas mixed with grassland and woodland), are situated in the northern and eastern region due to the higher rainfall and more fertile soils experienced in these areas.
The agricultural sector is dominated by the cattle industry which accounts for over 80% of the agricultural share of GDP (UNDP, 1994). Over the last few years, the country's production of major crops has not increased, even though the number of people employed in traditional agriculture and the crop area has increased (MoA, 1990). This would indicate that the relative productivity of the arable agricultural sector is actually on the decline.
The uncertainty of rains means that arable harvests cannot be relied upon; on average one year in three is a crop failure year.
The commercialisation of certain veld products has already made a significant contribution to the rural economy in many areas. The harvesting of Sengaparile (Harpagophytum procumbens), also known as Devil's Claw (see 2.1), and the basket weaving industry based on the makola palm (Hyphaene benguellensis), have provided cash incomes to many thousands of people who otherwise have little access to the cash economy.
The 1991 population of Botswana was estimated to be 1,327,000 with most people living in rural areas (CSO, 1992). The actual quality of life in rural areas is declining in relation to that of urban areas; according to 1989 government statistics, 64% of rural people were living below the poverty datum line. The potential for food insecurity and land degradation is alarming. It is believed that the process of land degradation is being exacerbated by drought, sustained cultivation of marginal soils and overgrazing. Both household and food security are lacking for most rural poor.
At the end of 1992 the national unemployment rate was estimated to be just over 16% (MoA, 1991). With the above in mind, it would appear that NTFPs have enormous potential to alleviate poverty and unemployment in rural areas.
NTFPs have traditionally played an important role in Botswana. The most important NTFPs would include foods, medicines, building materials and fuelwood. Although certain types of NTFPs have been successfully exploited on a commercial basis, the full potential of many NTFPs has still to be realised. In Botswana NTFPs are known as Veld Products.
Many NTFPs in Botswana tend to circulate through the local informal markets where significant sums of money are not generated. However, this does not mean that these markets are not important; for many rural poor this is their sole means of income. Evidence suggests that it is the rural poor and marginalized groups (especially women), which are most actively involved in the harvesting and trading of NTFPs. This can be illustrated by the case of Harpagophytum procumbens ( Sengaparile). An interim report on the harvesting of Sengaparile (Ntseane, 1990), outlined that of the harvesters, 80% were female, 80% had never been to school and 64% had no other source of income.
With the above knowledge, it would still be very unwise to assume that the commercialisation of NTFPs would automatically lead to these groups of people realizing the benefits (see 3.2). If any tangible benefits are to b e realised by marginalised groups then it is imperative that any commercialisation programme encompasses every related facet. Failure to do so could not only result in marginalised groups not benefiting from a valuable resource base but also in the NTFP resource base being severely damaged or destroyed.
The term non timber forest product refers to all tangible products obtained from forests (or any land under similar use as well as woody plants) other than timber but including fuelwood and charcoal (FAO, 1993).
Broadly speaking, NTFPs can be divided into five separate categories: namely food medicines and bioactive products, extractive products, animals and animal products, and plants and plant products, and insects and insect products.
Table 1 shows the range of some NTFPs available in Botswana. This list is not comprehensive but it includes the major NTFPs with commercial potential.
2.3.1 Stabilizing and diversifying the rural economy
The rural economy is heavily reliant on arable crop harvests. The uncertainty of a successful harvest, (see 1.2), means that there is always an element of instability in the rural economy. Diversification would in turn lead to increased stability, as less reliance would be placed on several key items.
NTFPs would appear to have the potential to diversify the rural economy; the range of NTFPs available in Botswana is vast and as such, there always will be some NTFPs are available throughout the year. This diversity means that the 'risk' is spread wider: should a year be particularly bad for one NTFP, then due to the range available, the impact will be minimal. This contrasts markedly with the consequences of an arable crop failure. However the Most of the products will be for the export market as the local market is too small to absorb the volume and diversity of products.
2.3.2 Increasing food and household security
Food and household security are lacking for most rural poor (see 1.2).
The NTFPs of Botswana are by their very nature suited to Botswana's climate. With certain exceptions, most years will produce at least a reasonable NTFP harvest. A wide range of NTFPs is available throughout the year, either fresh or stored. Table 2 shows the availability of some NTFPs of Botswana. The availability of these NTFPs means that the potential exists for a steady income to be earned from them throughout the year, be it through harvesting, processing or selling.
Many NTFP foods may be stored for several months when fresh while others can be stored for a year or more if dried (provided the weevils can be kept at bay). This m e a n s that theoretically many foods can be stored for the dry season.
From a nutritive point of view, NTFP foods can make a significant contribution to improved nutrition in rural areas. The mongongo nut contains over 60% oilseed and the oil-cake has over 60% protein (Wehmeyer et al, 1969). These figures are both higher than for soy beans and groundnuts. The morama bean is another protein rich food source and the morula fruit contains four times higher concentration of vitamin C than oranges, (see appendix for further details).
NTFP foods not only contribute to food security but they have the potential to contribute to improved nutrition in rural areas.
The availability of NTFPs around villages has diminished significantly over the past 30 years, mainly caused by overgrazing (the livestock eat and kill all young plants).
From Table 2 it can be seen that, due to availability, NTFP utilisation can contribute significantly to both food and household security; a range of NTFPs are available throughout the year, either fresh or dried. This means that theoretically food is available throughout the year and the potential exists to earn an income throughout the year.
2.3.3 Other benefits
The benefits of NTFP utilisation are not just limited to those outlined above. Environmental and social benefits may also be realised.
In real terms the output of the arable agriculture sector has decreased over the last few years, even though the land area under arable agriculture has increased (see 1.1). It has been suggested that this is in part due to marginal soils becoming exhausted, as such, the sustainability of this kind of agriculture is questionable.
It has been suggested that because the use of NTFPs does not cause the kind of environmental degradation associated with arable and livestock agriculture(i.e. soil erosion, habitat destruction, reduction of biodiversity etc.) they could be sustainably utilised as a valuable aid in increasing food and household security. There are however other problems associated with NTFP use (see 3.2). It is not implied that the use of NTFPs will result in a complete reversal of the environmental degradation associated with commercial agriculture, it is merely suggested that the use of NTFPs could help to reduce the levels of land degradation currently being experienced in rural areas.
Another very real possible social benefit of NTFP use could be a reduction of the workload on women; Women account for over half of Botswana's population and 52% of households in rural areas are headed by females (CSO, 1992). This is primarily due to outmigration by males to seek wage employment in the major conurbations.
In Botswana there has traditionally been a division of labour by gender. However, due to male migration (and other factors), this appears to have broken down. Women are now doing the work and assuming the responsibility for what was previously carried out by men. This is true for agriculture. Women are predominantly involved in subsistence agriculture, in terms of agricultural production, women carry the heaviest burden (Merafe, 1995).
Subsistence agriculture is characterised by requiring low technology, high inputs (in terms of labour and draught power), and having low outputs. As such, subsistence agriculture is very time consuming, especially considering the fact that it is very likely that the harvest will be unsuccessful. The official statistic is that one year in three is a crop failure due to erratic rainfall.
By contrast, the harvesting of NTFPs requires very little in the way of external inputs; there is no ploughing, sowing or weeding that needs to be done. By nature, the NTFPs are suited to Botswana's climate and so a reasonable harvest can be expected in most years, the prospect of a harvest is far more certain than for arable agriculture.
NTFP use could therefore drastically reduce the workload on women.
3.1.1 No Developed Market
With very few exceptions, there is no developed market for NTFPs both in the formal and informal sector. Traditional markets are unknown in Botswana, having essentially been a pastoral society, and only since independence have any markets been built in the larger towns.
The few NTFPs which are marketed on both the formal and informal markets include cooked and dried mopane worms (US10, 000, 000 dollars), sengaparile ( Harpagophytum procumbems) the internationally registered arthritic drug and basketwork mainly from the makola palm (Hyphaene benguellensis). These values reflect the formal values only.
Quite understandably firewood is the major NTFP on the informal market. It is essential that the domestic consumption of this product is per annum. The value of the wood has been estimated to be or for the country.
In real terms the full potential of Botswana NTFPs has not been tapped as there is a wide variety of NTFPs which either have not been recognised as marketable resources in the raw or processed form. The indications are that most NTFPs have a very substantial resource base.
Very little is known about most NTFPs potential concerning product diversity, resource base management, biological characteristics, and the markets. Statistics are totally lacking for the value of NTFPs to the national economy.
3.1.2 Inadequate policy measures
NTFPs nave been neglected by policy makers and foresters alike mainly because government is unaware of the contribution of NTFPs to the national economy. For a natural resource such as NTFPs it is imperative that there are adequate control measures to protect it from overexploitation; with a common resource most people wish to see the immediate monetary benefits with little regard for the future. The 'Tragedy of the Commons' is clearly visible around all villages in Botswana.
The Forestry Act of 1968 advocated the establishment of forest reserves for the protection of trees and other woody vegetation, this was only in the reserves and on state land. The actual policy was inefficiently implemented due to its non specific and uncoordinated nature, lack of personnel was also a contributing factor to the failure of the policy. The end result was deforestation, overgrazing and resource depletion.
There are six forest reserves in Botswana covering about 1% of the country. The standing stock is estimated to be about 10,000 cubic metres. The main species harvested are mukwa (Pterocarpus angolesis) and mukusi (Baitiaea plunjuga), both for timber production (MoA, 1991).
Shrub and woodland areas are extensive, covering over 608 of the country, however, whilst they do not have the same commercial potential for timber they do have commercial potential for non timber forest products (primarily foods and medicines).
The 1968 Forestry Act did not address natural woodlands and if the use of this resource continues unchecked (e.g. as a source of fuelwood) then the resource base will be severely damaged or even destroyed. This could have other environmental repercussions; the current rates of land degradation, soil erosion and localised deforestation are likely to increase, thus compounding the problem of bush encroachment.
The need for a revision in the Forestry Policy has been recognised by the Government, and The National Policy on Agricultural Development (1991) and The National Development Plan VII (1991-1997) address the relevant issues to enable sustainable development to be made in the forest sector.
Whether this revision will help to protect NTFPs remains to be seen. Legislation and policy measures are not enough to protect a common resource such as NTFPs. If the resource base is to be adequately protected then the policy measures need to be actively enforced.
Community Based Natural Management only will work therefor policy must change which it has to some extent.
3.1.3 Motivation
At present in Botswana, there is little incentive for rural communities to become involved in the management of their natural resources. Notable exceptions would be wildlife management and the harvesting of Narpagophytum procumbens. In both these instances direct benefits, in the form of a cash income, are realised.
The use of common natural resources requires adequate control measures to safeguard the future of these resources. As such, for these control measures to be successful, there must be complete cooperation between the policy makers and the communities utilising the resources.
The overriding concern of many rural communities is that of subsistence. The present evidence proves that issues such as resource sustainability will receive very little, if any attention; with far more immediate concerns, such as surviving to the next season, short and long term management goals are not a priority.
Traditional management and conservation methods have been squashed by colonial and subsequent governments which have drawn up policies and imposed legislation without reference to the people concerned who have a deep and intimate knowledge of the natural resources.
The government has come to realise that no matter how "good" their policies may be, they have not had the political will and/or the manpower to carry them out, e.g. allowing stocking rates of 2000 head at boreholes where according to legislation only 400 head should be kept. There has not been a single prosecution in this regard in spite of legislation being in place to curb this widespread practice of overgrazing.
In 1993 government finally has come to realise that there needs to be a radical change, when it stated that it wanted rural communities to manage their natural resources on a sustainable basis. Unfortunately there are very few incentives for people to become involved in resource management. Only two natural resources have any potential, i.e. Harpagophytum procumbens the medicinal plant and wildlife, both of which have gender and socioeconomic bias within communities. Wildlife is man's permit while the harvesting of NTFPs usually is the activity of women from the poorest sector of the community.
In order to fulfill the need to encourage to encourage and develop community based natural resource management, it is necessary to put a cash value on a wide range of NTFPs which at present is non existent. etc. etc.
3.1.4 Restricted access to technology
For many NTFPs the greatest profit margin is realised after processing, and many NTFPs require some level of processing. Processing requires access to the appropriate technology. Although many NTFPs may be processed utilising very basic technology, (e.g. foods and craft material), if these NTFPs are to be sold outside rural areas then some further processing may be required. This is especially true for products such as medicines, bioactive products, and extractive products. In this instance quality control is also a very important factor (see 3.1.4).
In practice most NTFPs will have to be sold outside rural areas and even exported due to the small population in the country.
The people most likely to be involved in NTFP use (namely rural communities) have very limited access to technology. As such, it is likely that they will end up selling the NTFP in a relatively 'raw' state to an intermediary who will then end up selling it to a processor. The profit margin increases the further up the chain you go and the harvester would thus realise the least profit margin.
This is the current situation with a number of NTFPs in Botswana, mahupu (Terfezia pfeilli) is such a case. Mahupu, also known as the Kalahari Truffle, can be processed using very low technology i.e. it can be pickled. This level of technology appears to be out of the reach of the harvesters. Harvesters sell the raw material for a preset price to intermediaries or processors. In this instance the harvesters do not realise the maximum benefits, even though they do earn a cash income from harvesting.
3.1.5 Quality control
Being natural products, the quality of the raw material varies considerably. If the NTFP is to be sold on the international or national market then it is essential that there are adequate quality control measures to ensure that the final product is consistent and of high enough quality to ensure that it is marketable.
This could be a major problem if the NTFP is to be exploited on a commercial scale. This would be especially true for medicines and bioactive products. Appropriate processing techniques would be needed so as to ensure that the final product is consistent and of the necessary quality. Unfortunately this would mean that in many cases the processing stage would not be carried out by the rural communities due to restricted access to technology.
3.2.1 Conflict
The harvesting of NTFPs could cause conflict situations to arise, as groups and individuals would be competing for the same common resource. Each individual would be understandably trying to maximise their benefits, and this would invariably be at the expense of another individual, and the resource base in the long run. The interests of different ethnic groups sharing the same resources also can cause serious conflict.
To use an example; in Botswana, most Bakalagadi villages have Basarwa groups living within a 15-20km radius. The Basarwa are highly dependent on NTFPs and could easily be overwhelmed by the more dominant Bakalagadi. If there is to be equitable exploitation of NTFPs, then the two groups have to collaborate to develop a mutually beneficial management strategy. Such issues are very sensitive and any management strategy would need to take such ethnic differences into account.
3.2.2 Exploitative commercialisation
When a monetary value is placed on a NTFP then there is a very real risk that the resource base will be placed under severe pressure. Individuals will be trying to earn as much as possible before somebody else harvests the product, the pressure to earn an income would greatly outweigh the need to conserve the resource base. In this instance the NTFP resource base may not be left with sufficient time to regenerate.
This would be especially true for medicinal plants as the active ingredient mostly are found in the roots and bark. Overharvesting in such cases has disastrous consequences. It has been noted (Taylor, 1981), that even with strict control measures, many species of medicinal plants have completely disappeared from certain areas of South Africa.
Another example of overexploitation of a natural resource concerns the basket industry which for some 25 years has had a very favourable response to the export market. The leaves of the Makola Palm (Hyphaene benguellensis) and wild grasses are the resources used. The weaving is done with the palm leaf. The basketweavers used to harvest every third leaf just after it emerged but as pressure for the resource increased, every new leaf that emerged was harvested, with the inevitable result that the palm trees died. The Needless to say this tree now has totally disappeared from the basketweaving areas. The B. discolor also is an important wild food tree and it is one of the few protected trees in Botswana but even that has had no effect on its demise.
It is clear, therefor, that if any management is implemented for the sustained utilisation of indigenous trees (and other renewable resources) that such systems should have the full support of the people involved and not simply be imposed by outsiders.
3.2.3 Adverse effects on rural poor
Although rural communities and marginalised groups may benefit from the commercialisation of NTFPs, it is possible that they could also be the biggest losers.
The harvesting and selling of NTFPs provides the opportunity to earn an income but it is probable that two adverse situations may arise;
Firstly wild foods are the most marketable NTFPs in Botswana and the pressure to earn money may mean that individuals will harvest and sell as much as they can. Traditionally many of these wild foods are preserved and stored for food security during the hungry season. If these foods are sold for cash then food security will be lacking when it is needed most .
Secondly another situation that may arise is that the income generated from the sale of NTFPs may be wasted on items such as alcohol and trash food.
3.3.1 Land use changes
The habitat for NTFPs is declining due to lack of attention on management and conservation.
Because of the almost total lack of statistics NTFPs have been ignored by policy makers as the markets are seen to be small and the contribution to GDP insignificant. The emphasis appears to be on livestock and arable agriculture; the land area under arable agriculture in Botswana has increased over the last few years (UNDP, 1994), even so, output from the arable agriculture sector has remained stagnant.
With the agricultural policy emphasising the importance of arable agriculture (Gov. paper no'1), it is likely that the land area under arable agriculture will continue to increase and thus the habitat for NTFPs will continue to decline.
3.3.3 Breakdown of traditional management systems
Much of the pressure on the NTFP resource base can be attributed to the breakdown of traditional management systems (Parratt & Taylor, 1994). Traditional management systems were controlled by the Chiefs and Headmen but colonial administration has removed all such control and put it into central government. Modernisation has resulted in erosion of the power and control traditionally commanded by these leaders.
Now policy means to build on traditional system and local initiative to develop own strategies.
3.3.4 Lack of support infrastructure
Lack of support infrastructure could pose a major constraint to the commercial development of NTFPs in Botswana. Many NTFPs are found in the more rural areas and as such transporting the products to the major markets could be a problem. The actual marketing could also be a constraint.
The limited access to technology (see 3.1.3) could pose a problem in producing a product that is acceptable to both the national and international markets. If NTFPs are to be successfully commercialised then it is essential that a reliable buying and marketing network is established by an NGO.
However, perhaps the biggest constraint is the lack of information on Botswana NTFPs; There is no database outlining the resource base of NTFPs and research is lacking. What research has been carried out appears to be uncoordinated and the dissemination of research information is distinctly lacking.
It is not possible for government, or other policy makers, to determine what the sustainable yields for specific NTFPs are if the actual resource base is not known. This is a major constraint and further research needs to be carried out on this issue before any commercialisation/management program can be successfully implemented. Government policy makers should not make he decisions: it should be the people.
4. SUMMARY
NTFPs possess great potential for improving the long term quality of life in rural areas and also for reducing the current levels of land degradation. The above outlines the absolute necessity of a holistic approach to NTFP management, every issue is interrelated and the utmost caution must be taken to pay attention to the links between different issues.
Any commercialisation program of natural resources is fraught with dangers, but with a thorough, holistic approach the dangers can be overcome and the benefits can be great.