Source: AGRICOLA database (1970-1996)

Galetti, M. and J. C. Fernandez (1998). Palm heart harvesting in the Brazilian Atlantic forest: changes in industry structure and the illegal trade. Journal Of Applied Ecology. Apr 35(2): 294-301.

1. Until the late 1960s, Euterpe edulis was the most important edible palm species in the Brazilian markets. Since then, overharvesting of natural stands and the limited scope of plantations have caused the industry to shift to the multistemmed E, oleracea from the Amazon river estuary.2, As a result of the relocation of the industry, the structure of the palm harvesting industry has changed and illegal trade has continued to exploit the remaining natural stands of E, edulis.3, it is suggested that, to avoid the total harvesting of E. edulis and to achieve sustainable management of the palm heart, it will be necessary to diversify the local economy, create incentives for small land owners to improve their management practices, while keeping their competitiveness against the illegal trade, create the incentive of new sources of palm hearts and create a 'green stamping' For management palms.4, Transformation of the illegal structure of the palm heart industry is probably the only solution to avoid the total depletion of the wild stands of E. edulis.

Haggar, J. P. and J. J. Ewel (1997). Primary productivity and resource partitioning in model tropical ecosystems. Ecology . Jun 78(4): 1211-1221.

The diversity of plant life forms in tropical forests affords the opportunity for assembly of plant combinations, both natural and managed, that make full use of resources and sustain high productivity. The influence of combining life forms on productivity and resource use was evaluated using three fast-growing tree species (Hyeronima alchorneoides, Cedrela odorata, and Cordia alliodora); each species was grown alone and with two perennial, large-stature, self-supporting monocots (Euterpe oleracea and Heliconia imbricata).Aboveground net primary productivity was extremely high in all stands. The monocots did not contribute significantly to the productivity of the Hyeronima polycultures, which was 4.5-8.4 g.m(-2).d(-1) between 18 and 36 mo. In contrast, the monocots accounted for 57% of the productivity (9.7 g.m(-2).d(-1)) of Cedrela polycultures and 67% of the productivity (6.8 g.m(-2).d(-1)) of the Cordia polycultures, by age 3 yr. The leaf area and density of fine roots in the Cedrela and Cordia polycultures were also significantly increased by the presence of the monocots, reaching or surpassing the levels found in the Hyeronima stands.The high productivity of Hyeronima, coupled with poor growth of its interplanted monocots, indicated that Hyeronima was able to achieve nearly complete use of resources. Ecosystem productivity and resource capture were increased when the monocots were grown with the other two tree species, and this occurred because of the inability of the tree species to completely utilize available resources, which provided an opportunity for the monocots to flourish in the understory. Monocot productivity in the Cedrela stands was additive to that of the trees, indicating complementary resource use between the monocots and this tree species. In the case of Cordia, tree productivity was slowed by the monocots, but this decline was more than compensated for by the high productivity of the associated monocots.Whether in natural forests or human-constructed agroforestry systems, the presence of dominant species that do not fully exploit all available resources allows the coexistence of other species and creates the potential for complementary resource use. The resource use characteristics of such species should be a key consideration in forest restoration efforts and in the design of sustainable land use systems.

Haggar, J. P. and J. J. Ewel (1997). Primary productivity and resource partitioning in model tropical ecosystems. Ecology 78(4): 1211-1221. Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.

The diversity of plant life forms in tropical forests affords the opportunity for assembly of plant combinations, both natural and managed, that make full use of resources and sustain high productivity. The influence of combining life forms on productivity and resource use was evaluated on a cleared site (formerly a cacao plantation with overstorey trees of Cordia alliodora) at the La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica. Three fast-growing tropical hardwood species chosen for their contrasting phenology and physiognomy were planted at the site in May-July 1991, using a triangular planting pattern with 2 m between trees (a stand density of 2887 stems/ha, about 3X greater than used in plantations of these species). The species were Hyeronima alchorneoides (an evergreen with large simple leaves during its juvenile stage, and a compact crown), Cedrela odorata (semideciduous as a juvenile, but later deciduous, with compound leaves and complex branching) and Cordia alliodora (semideciduous with simple leaves and a tiered open crown). Each tree species was grown alone and interplanted with two perennial, large-stature, self-supporting monocotyledons - Euterpe oleracea (a tall multi-stemmed palm) and Heliconia imbricata (a perennial herb with numerous basal shoots and leaves extending to 5 m or more in height) - planted at the same time as the trees. Above-ground net primary productivity was extremely high in all stands. The monocotyledons did not contribute significantly to the productivity of the Hyeronima polycultures, which was 4.5-8.4 g m-2 day-1 between 18 and 36 months old. In contrast, the monocotyledons accounted for 57% of the productivity (9.7 g m-2 day-1) of Cedrela polycultures and 67% of the productivity (6.8 g m-2 day-1) of the Cordia polycultures by 3 yr old. The leaf area and density of fine roots in the Cedrela and Cordia polycultures were also significantly increased by the presence of the monocotyledons, reaching or surpassing the levels found in the Hyeronima stands. The high productivity of Hyeronima, coupled with poor growth of its interplanted monocotyledons, indicated that Hyeronima was able to achieve nearly complete use of resources. Ecosystem productivity and resource capture were increased when the monocotyledons were grown with the other two tree species, and this occurred because of the inability of the tree species to completely utilize available resources, which provided an opportunity for the monocotyledons to flourish in the understorey. Monocotyledon productivity in the Cedrela stands was additive to that of the trees, indicating complementary resource use between the monocotyledons and this tree species. In the case of Cordia, tree productivity was slowed by the monocotyledons, but this decline was more than compensated for by the high productivity of the associated species. Whether in natural forests or human-constructed agroforestry systems, the presence of dominant species that do not fully exploit all available resources allows the coexistence of other species and creates the potential for complementary resource use. The resource use characteristics of such species should be a key consideration in forest restoration efforts and in the design of sustainable land use systems.

Lubrano, C. and J. R. Robin (1997). Major compounds study in fruit pulp oils of six Guiana Palms species. Acta Botanica Gallica 144(4): 495-499.

Oils from the fruit mesocarps of six palm species were studied (Jessenia bataua Jacq., Astrocaryum vulgare C. Martius, Euterpe oleracea C. Martius, Oenocarpus bacaba C. Martius, Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cortes, Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.). The fatty acid composition, determined by gas chromatography (GC), revealed the predominance of oleic acid in all the oils (39 to 70%). GC analysis of the sterols revealed the existence of delta 5 sterols and beta sitosterol in particular (36 to 78%) in the oils. Finally, an HPLC study of the tocopherols and tocotrienols generally showed a strong predominance of alpha tocopherol in the banding patterns, but also the existence of tocotrienols in varying proportions. Only the oil from the Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cortes species was richer in tocotrienols than in tocopherols.

Lubrano, C. and J. R. Robin (1997). Major compounds study in fruit pulp oils of six Guiana palms species. Acta Botanica Gallica 144(4): 495-499. Cent. Recherche Yves Rocher, 101 quai Roosevelt, F-92444 Issy-les-Moulineaux Cedex, France

Oils from the fruit mesocarps of six palm species were studied (Jessenia bataua Jacq., Astrocaryum vulgare C. Martius, Euterpe oleracea C. Martius, Oenocarpus bacaba C. Martius, Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cones, Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.). The fatty acid composition, determined by gas chromatography (GC), revealed the predominance of oleic acid in all the oils (39 to 70%). GC analysis of the sterols revealed the existence of delta 5 sterols and beta sitosterol in particular (36 to 78%) in the oils. Finally, an HPLC study of the tocopherols and tocotrienols generally showed a strong predominance of alpha tocopherol in the banding patterns, but also the existence of tocotrienols in varying proportions. Only the oil from the Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cortes species was richer in tocotrienols than in tocopherols.

Dash, M. (1996). Assessing the future of non-timber forest products in Guyana. TRI News 15(1): 3-5. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.

Interviews and archival research were used to examine market trends, harvesting techniques and implications for future availability of manicole cabbage palms (Euterpe oleracea), balata resin from Manilkara bidentata and lianas (nibi, Heteropsis jenmani, and kufa, Clusia spp.) used in furniture in Guyana. Results were used to assess the prospects, including long-term ecological viability, for these 3 non-timber forest products.

Muniz, M. N., R. Vamos, et al. (1996). The economic value of managing the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mar.) the floodplains of the Amazon estuary, Para, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 87(1-3): 163-173.

Extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can provide important income for the inhabitants of tropical developing countries. The present research focuses on NTFP extraction in the Amazon estuary by evaluating the economics of managing acai (Euterpe oleracea), a predominant palm species of the Amazon floodplains. The productivity, revenues and costs associated with traditional household management of acai were examined in secondary forests and in homegardens. The present value of the net revenue (NPV) of lands managed for fruit and palm-heart was calculated at different distances from the central market of Belem, Para, Brazil. Intensity of acai management was dependent on distance from the market and household resources, ranging from simple collection in natural forest to intense cultivation. All calculations of revenues accounted for variation in prices due to seasonality of production. Acai was found to be a highly valuable production system even at high rates of interest. At a 15% interest rate, the net present values were US 1337-2693 ha-1 in managed secondary forests and US 4266-6930 ha-1 in homegardens.

Muniz, M. N., R. Vamos, et al. (1996). The economic value of managing the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the floodplains of the Amazon estuary, Para, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 87: 1-3. Tropical Resources Institute, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 205 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511, USA.

Extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can provide important income for the inhabitants of tropical developing countries. The present research focused on NTFP extraction in the Amazon estuary (Para, Brazil) by evaluating the economics of managing acai (Euterpe oleracea), a predominant palm species of the Amazon floodplains. The palm is harvested for its palm-heart and fruit, the latter being a primary staple food of the regions inhabitants, although acai palm-heart is also exported to other regions of Brazil. The productivity, revenues and costs associated with traditional household management of acai were examined in secondary forests and in homegardens. The present value of the net revenue (NPV) of lands managed for fruit and palm-heart was calculated at different distances from the central market of Belem (0-60 km, 60-85 km and 85-115 km from the city). Intensity of acai management depended on two main factors: distance from the market, and household resources, and ranged from simple collection in natural forest to intense cultivation. All calculations of revenues accounted for variation in prices due to seasonality of production. Acai was found to be a highly valuable production system even at high rates of interest. At a 15% interest rate, the net present values were US$ 1337-2693 ha-1 in managed secondary forests and US$ 4266-6930 ha-1 in homegardens. The results of the survey are discussed in relation to possible future management of acai, and the seasonal fluctuation in acai yields, a characteristic common to many NTFPs.

MunizMiret, N., R. Vamos, et al. (1996). The economic value of managing the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart) in the floodplains of the Amazon estuary, Para, Brazil. Forest Ecology And Management. Oct 87(1-3): 163-173.

Extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can provide important income for the inhabitants of tropical developing countries, The present research focuses on NTFP extraction in the Amazon estuary by evaluating the economics of managing acai (Euterpe oleracea), a predominant palm species of the Amazon floodplains. The productivity, revenues and costs associated with traditional household management of acai were examined in secondary forests and in homegardens. The present value of the net revenue (NPV) of lands managed for fruit and palm-heart was calculated at different distances from the central market of Belem, Para, Brazil. Intensity of acai management was dependent on distance from the market and household resources, ranging from simple collection in natural forest to intense cultivation, All calculations of revenues accounted for variation in prices due to seasonality of production. Acai was found to be a highly valuable production system even at high rates of interest. At a 15% interest rate, the net present values were US$ 1337-2693 ha(-1) in managed secondary forests and US$ 4266-6930 ha(-1) in homegardens.

Orlande, T., J. Laarman, et al. (1996). Palmito sustainability and economics in Brazil's Atlantic coastal forest. Forest Ecology and Management 80: 1-3. J. Laarman, Department of Forestry, Box 8008, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.

A number of palm species produce edible palm hearts, or 'palmito' as it is called in Brazil. Palmito jussara (Euterpe edulis) occurs in the Atlantic Coastal Forest of Brazil from sea level to 750 m altitude. It is a single-stemmed plant (unlike E. oleracea in the Amazon region, which is multi-stemmed), and germinates in the shade; thus it seems to reproduce best in a forest environment. It is favoured for both international export and domestic consumption. Except on private lands, extraction of wild jussara palmito from the Atlantic Coastal Forest is illegal. Yet palmito extraction in this area continues on a large scale because of the profitability for palmito processors and merchants, ineffective government intervention, and relatively attractive earnings for low-income palmito harvesters ('palmiteiros'), most of whom are landless workers. Because most palmito cutting and transport is clandestine, virtually no information is available on the financial returns from palmito extraction. However, the question is central for discussions of sustainability in unmanaged vs. managed agro-ecological systems. A description is given of palmito processing and commerce in Brazil. Interviews were conducted with several individuals in Brazil in order to gain information about palmito production, prices, and costs. The uncertainties in assumptions and data were simulated, in order to generate a range of estimates on the net value of palmito management alternatives. Financial net present value (NPV) of palmito extraction is highly sensitive to the time value of money (discount rate). 'Managed' extraction is more attractive than unmanaged extraction at low discount rates. As the discount rate increases, the attractiveness of sustainable palmito management decreases. All scenarios simulated suggest that palmito cutting is very lucrative, explaining current institutional problems in controlling its commerce.

Rodrigues, K. F., S. C. Redlin, et al. (1996). Fungal endophytes of palms. Endophytic fungi in grasses and woody plants: systematics, ecology, and evolution. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, USA.

Information on leaf endophytes of Arecaceae is summarized with particular emphasis on the endophytic communities in Euterpe oleracea.

Hiraoka, M. (1995). Land use changes in the Amazon estuary. Global Environmental Change 5(4): 323-336. Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Departamento de Ecologia, Belem, Para 66.040, Brazil.

The estuarine floodplain inhabitants of the Amazon near Belem, Brazil, are making the transition from sugarcane swidden farming to permanent farming based on acai palm (Euterpe oleracea) agroforests. The acai forests also include multiple perennial species (planted or retained from a converted fallow), and in the earlier stages, annual crops and sugarcane. The establishment of agroforests from sugarcane fallow or from swidden is described. Details are given of the labour requirements and returns of both swidden and acai systems. The Belem region is characterized by rapidly increasing population, proximity to major urban centres, and inhabitants who are fully participating in the market economy. These factors, however, have not led to an intensified use of labour and land. Instead, the pattern has been toward less intense use with higher returns than previously. A combination of factors, including social, economic, and political changes within the past two decades, the cultural patterns of the region, and the distinctive environment, are responsible for the new pattern. This case study suggests that there are no universal paradigms to explain labour and land use changes.

Menezes, N. M. A., J. D. Alves, et al. (1995). Anaerobic metabolism of Euterpe oleracea: II. Plant tolerance mechanism to anoxia. Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal 7(1): 47-51.

The activity of alcohol dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase were greater in the stems than in the roots and the activity of the alcohol dehydrogenase was always greater than that of lactate dehydrogenase enzyme in acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart) plantlets. Seedlings submitted to the anoxia did not develop during the stress period, but resumed development when re-exposed to aeration. The formation of aerenchyma in roots of acai seedlings happens even under aerated conditions, independently of waterlogging and the presence of the constitutive alcohol dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase provides a high level of tolerance to oxygen deficiency in the soil.

Menezes, N. M. A., J. D. Alves, et al. (1995). Anaerobic metabolism of Euterpe oleracea: I. Alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase and seed embryo development. Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal 7(1): 41-45.

Embryo of seeds of acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart) didn't develop in the absence of oxygen. Under aeration, the embryo length and dry matter increased more than four times. The activity time course of alcohol dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase in seeds showed a similar pattern for both treatments, indicating the existence of a constitutive and anoxia induced enzymes. Seeds of acai present a low activity anaerobic metabolism directed more to lactic path than to the ethanol path, showing that the translational mechanism remained intact during anoxia.

Menezes, N. M. A., J. D. Alves, et al. (1995). Anaerobic metabolism of Euterpe oleracea. I. Alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase and seed embryo development. Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal 7(1): 41-45. Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, 37200-000 Lavras, MG, Brazil.

Seeds of E. oleracea were treated with 0.5% NaOCl for 5 minutes before germinating for 20 days on moist paper or under water in the absence of O2 in darkness at 30øC. In the absence of O2, growth was totally inhibited whereas embryo length and dry weight increased by up to 400% after 20 days in aerobic conditions. The metabolic pathways operating in aerobic and anaerobic conditions are described; alcohol dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase activities were similar under both conditions. It was concluded that the translational mechanism remained intact during anoxia.

Menezes, N. M. A., J. D. Alves, et al. (1995). Anaerobic metabolism of Euterpe oleracea. II. Plant tolerance mechanism to anoxia. Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal 7(1): 47-51. Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, 37200-000 Lavras, MG, Brazil.

When 20-day-old seedlings of E. oleracea were treated with 0.1% NaOCl solution and then grown for 16 days in open glass jars or under water in the absence of O2 at 30øC under a 10-h photoperiod, alcohol dehydrogenase activity was always higher than lactate dehydrogenase activity and the activities of both enzymes were always higher in shoots than in roots. Anoxia inhibited further development of seedlings but growth continued on return to normal conditions. Since aerenchyma developed in all roots, regardless of conditions, a high degree of tolerance to anaerobic conditions was assured.

Pelacani, C. R., L. E. M. Oliveira, et al. (1995). A profile of palm heart extraction in the amazon estuary. Hum ecol. New York, N.Y. : Plenum Publishing Corporation. Sept: 357-385.

Pelacani, C. R., L. E. M. Oliveira, et al. (1995). A profile of palm heart extraction in the amazon estuary. Hum ecol. New York, N.Y. : Plenum Publishing Corporation. Sept: 357-385.

Pelacani, C. R., L. E. M. d. Oliveira, et al. (1995). Water relations of some forest species under flooded environment. Revista Arvore 19(4): 548-558. CNPq, CNPMF/EMBRAPA, Caixa Postal 007, 44380-000 Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the stomatal behaviour of some exotic and native forest species from the region of Alto Rio Grande, Minas Gerais, Brazil, when grown in soil with different oxygen availabilities and subjected to periodic flooding. Young plants of Sesbania sesban (sesbania), Euterpe oleracea (cabbage palm), Eriobotrya japonia (plum), Inga vera (inga), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) and Machaerium villosum (jacaranda mineiro) were used. The experiments were carried out in a greenhouse using 2 levels of oxygen availability (with and without [low and high]) and periodic flooding (over periods of 11-55 days). Stomatal conductance and transpiration were significantly reduced in plants grown under conditions of lower oxygen availability during flooding of the root system over 55 days. However, the stomata of sesbania, inga and cabbage palm remained partially open under flooding conditions, suggesting the existence of an important flood tolerance in these three species. There was no correlation between stomatal closure and reduction of leaf water potential.

Pollak, H., M. Mattos, et al. (1995). A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon estuary. Human Ecology. Sep 23(3): 357-385.

Many of the processed palm hearts consumed throughout the world are derived from the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.), which grows abundantly in floodplain forests of the Amazon estuary. Palm heart extraction began in the estuary in the 1970s and there are now hundreds of canning factories and some 50 distribution firms in this region. Annual profits of the canning factories range from $30,000 to $50,000 while profits for distribution firms frequently exceed $500,000/year. But there are several indications that this economic boon will be short-lived: factory closings are frequent, palm hearts are much smaller now than in the past and mortality of palm trees is high in stands subjected to frequent palm heart harvest. However the acai palm is well suited for management because of its abundance, rapid growth, and multistemmed life form. Under management, palm hearts can be harvested from the same clump over many years through controlled thinning. The management of acai stands could result in significant long-term savings for palm heart factories. Indeed, acai management may offer one of the best opportunities to date for sustained use of some Amazonian forests.

Pollak, H., M. Mattos, et al. (1995). A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon estuary. Human Ecology New York 23(3): 357-385. IMAZON, Instituto do Homen e Meio Ambiente de Amazonia, Caixa Postal 1015, Belem, Para 66.017-000, Brazil.

Many of the processed palm hearts consumed throughout the world are derived from the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea), which grows abundantly in floodplain forests of the Amazon estuary. Palm heart extraction began in the estuary in the 1970s and there are now hundreds of canning factories and some five distribution firms in this region. Annual profits of the canning factories range from $30 000 to $50 000 while profits for distribution firms frequently exceed $500 000/year. However, there are several indications that this economic boom will be short-lived: factory closings are frequent, palm hearts are much smaller now than in the past, and mortality of palm trees is high in stands subjected to frequent palm heart harvest. However, the acai palm is well suited for management because of its abundance, rapid growth, and multistemmed life form. Under management, palm hearts can be harvested from the same clump over many years through controlled thinning. The management of acai stands could result in significant long-term savings for palm heart factories. Indeed, acai management may offer one of the best opportunities to date for sustained use of some Amazonian forests.

Rodrigues, K. F., O. Petrini, et al. (1995). Variability among isolates of Xylaria cubensis as determined by isozyme analysis and somatic incompatibility tests. Mycologia . Sep Oct 87(5): 592-596.

Thirty strains of Xylaria cubensis isolated from leaves of the Brazilian rainforest palm Euterpe oleracea were compared by means of somatic incompatibility tests and gel electrophoretic analysis in order to gain further insights into their population dynamics. Five enzyme systems were used to assess genetic variability. Isozyme results showed that somatically compatible isolates do not necessarily have the same phenotype. Comparison of isozyme banding patterns revealed a relatively high degree of genetic diversity within populations of X. cubensis, suggesting that E. oleracea leaves are subjected to a constant immigration of fungal inoculum. This genetic diversity is presumably the result of sexual reproduction and consequently development of new genotypes of X. cubensis in the forest surrounding the palms.

Rodrigues, K. F., O. Petrini, et al. (1995). Dry matter production and distribution in plants of Inga (Inga vera Wild.) and Acai (Euterpe oleraea Mart.) grown under root system flooded conditions. Acta hortic. Wageningen : International Society for Horticultural Science. Sept 370: 181-187.

Rodrigues, K. F., O. Petrini, et al. (1995). Dry matter production and distribution in plants of Inga (Inga vera Wild.) and Acai (Euterpe oleraea Mart.) grown under root system flooded conditions. Acta hortic. Wageningen : International Society for Horticultural Science. Sept 370: 181-187.

Rodrigues, K. F., O. Petrini, et al. (1995). Variability among isolates of Xylaria cubensis as determined by isozyme analysis and somatic incompatibility tests. Mycologia 87(5): 592-596.

Thirty strains of Xylaria is isolated from leaves of the Brazilian rainforest palm Euterpe oleracea were compared by means of somatic incompatibility tests and gel electrophoretic analysis in order to gain further insights into their population dynamics. Five enzyme systems were used to assess genetic variability. Isozyme results showed that somatically compatible isolates do not necessarily have the same phenotype. Comparison of isozyme banding patterns revealed a relatively high degree of genetic diversity within populations of X. cubensis, suggesting that E. oleracea leaves are subjected to a constant immigration of fungal inoculum. This genetic diversity is presumably the result of sexual reproduction and consequently development of new genotypes of X. cubensis in the forest surrounding the palms.

Rodrigues, K. F., O. Petrini, et al. (1995). Variability among isolates of Xylaria cubensis as determined by isozyme analysis and somatic incompatibility tests. Mycologia 87(5): 592-596. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, 10458-5126, USA.

Thirty strains of X. cubensis isolated from leaves of the Brazilian rain forest palm Euterpe oleracea were compared by means of somatic incompatibility tests and gel electrophoretic analysis in order to gain further insights into their population dynamics. Five enzyme systems were used to assess genetic variability. Isoenzyme results showed that somatically compatible isolates did not necessarily have the same phenotype. Comparison of isoenzyme banding patterns revealed a relatively high degree of genetic diversity within populations of X. cubensis, suggesting that E. oleracea leaves were subjected to a constant immigration of fungal inoculum. This genetic diversity was presumably the result of sexual reproduction and consequent development of new genotypes of X. cubensis in the forest surrounding the palms.

Zorzenon, F. J. and E. C. Bergmann (1995). Occurrence of Xyleborus ferrugineus (Fabricius, 1801) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in fruits and seeds of two species of the genus Euterpe. Revista de Agricultura Piracicaba 70(1): 17-20. Instituto biologico, Caixa Postal 7119, CEP 01064-970, Sao Paulo, Brazil.

The scolytid Xyleborus ferrugineus is reported for the first time from Euterpe edulis and E. oleracea in the Vale do Ribeira, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Seeds and fruits were found infested, leading to a 80% reduction in seed germination.

Zorzenon, F. J. and E. C. Bergmann (1995). Ocorrencia de Xyleborus ferrugineus (Fabricius, 1801) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) em frutos e sementes de Duas Especies do genero Euterpe. Revista De Agricultura 70(1): 17-20.

Araujo, E. F., R. F. d. Silva, et al. (1994). Evaluation of quality in acai seeds stored in different packages and environmental conditions. Revista Brasileira de Sementes 16(1): 76-79. Departamento de Fitotecnia, Universidade Federal de Vicosa, 36570-000 Vicosa, MG, Brazil.

Seeds of Euterpe oleracea removed from fruits harvested in Parana, Brazil in 1992-93 were placed in the shade for 1 week before being transferred to plastic bags for a further 15 days. At this stage seed moisture content was 33.3% and germination percentage was 79%. Seeds were then stored in transparent plastic or cloth bags under laboratory conditions or in cold storage at 3-4ø and 80-85% RH. After 2 months viability was totally lost in all seeds stored in cloth bags and in plastic bags in cold storage whereas during storage in plastic bags in the laboratory, germination percentages fell from 28% after 2 months to 8% after 7 months. It was concluded that the seeds were recalcitrant and sensitive to both dehydration and low temperature during storage.

Barton, D. (1994). Indigenous agroforestry in Latin America: a blueprint for sustainable agriculture? NRI Socio economic Series(6). Natural Resources Institute, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK.

Large-scale rain forest destruction in Latin America (Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia) has occurred partly as a result of government policy incentives to colonize and clear forest for agriculture and ranching, in order to alleviate poor economic and social conditions in other regions. Inappropriate agricultural techniques have been used which are not sustainable, and the new colonist farmers are forced to clear ever more virgin forest for agriculture in order to survive. The objectives of this literature review are to assess the value of the traditional subsistence agroforestry (swidden) systems practised over centuries by the indigenous people of Latin America (Amerindians), and to suggest ways of incorporating these methods into a sustainable (non-destructive) and productive system for the new colonist farmers. In the past, researchers perceived these swidden methods as an exploitative and destructive form of agriculture, because they involved cutting and burning of the forest. However, clearings are small, and planting and protection of trees after the initial cultivation of annual crops aids the forest regrowth in the fallow phase. Specific examples of swidden agroforestry systems are described, and their contribution to sustainability, biodiversity, productivity for market, soil conservation, flexibility and population density support are discussed. The systems described include Bora, Kayapo, Ka'apor and Auesha agroforestry (all indigenous subsistence systems), and Haustec, Ribereno, Santa Rosa, Ribereno floodplain, Acai palm (Euterpe oleracea), Caboclo and Japanese agroforestry (all indigenous systems adapted over the centuries to market conditions). Overall, these systems are found to be less destructive and more productive than the new colonist agriculture, and should form a basis for a sustainable system. Recent research on agroforestry and other methods for maintaining soil fertility and preventing degradation is outlined, as exemplified by 4 projects not using indigenous sytems (annual cropping at Yurimaguas, Peru; the NW Brazil Integrated Development Programme; agroforestry research by the British Tropical Agricultural Mission in Bolivia; and the Coca Agroforestry Project in Brazil). All of these efforts have been beset by infrastructural and economic difficulties. The review ends by outlining the possibilities for and limits (often labour intensive, location-specific and socioeconomic constraints) to the adoption of indigenous methods by new colonist farmers. Suggestions are made for research priorities to enable their effective transfer, including thorough documentation of existing systems and their capacity, participatory field research, investigation of the marketing potential for crops and forest products, and the changes in government policy required to implement these methods. It is concluded that indigenous agroforestry systems are both ecologically and economically beneficial, but are not without some limitations. However, from the wealth of indigenous knowledge available and proposed new research, it should be possible to adapt these systems to produce a model or blueprint for sustainable and productive agriculture for the new colonist.

Brondizio, E. S., E. F. Moran, et al. (1994). Land Use Change in the Amazon Estuary - Patterns of Caboclo Settlement and Landscape Management. Human Ecology. Sep 22(3): 249-278.

Landsat TM scenes for 1985 and 1991 are used to produce a georeferenced map of land cover and land use for an area of the Amazon estuary inhabited by three populations of caboclos with distinct patterns of land use. This information is combined in a geographic information system with ethnographic and survey research carried out over the past 5 years to develop representative spectral ''signatures'' which permit measurement and differentiation of land uses and the detection of change even between small areas of managed floodplain forest and unmanaged forest, and between three distinct age/growth classes of secondary succession following deforestation. Implementation of these procedures permit the scaling up or down of research at different resolutions. Three distinct patterns of land use are examined with differential impact on the environment. Mechanized agriculture at one site has eliminated virtually all the mature upland forest and is now dominated by secondary successional vegetation. The more traditional system of diversified land use at the next site shows a subtle cycling of flooded forest to managed palm forest through time in response to the price of palm fruit and cycling in the use of fallow land. A third site, based on palm fruit extractivism, shows minimal changes in land cover due to persistent specialization on management of flooded forest extraction. There is little evidence that the community with the greatest impact on forest cover is any better off economically than the two communities which have minimal impact on the landscape. This study suggests how a balance between use and conservation in Amazonia may be achieved in floodplain and estuarine areas, and the effectiveness of monitoring these types of land cover from satellite platforms.

Ferreira, R. K. (1994). The foliar fungal endophytes of the Amazonian palm Euterpe oleracea. Mycologia 86(3): 376-385.

A survey of the fungal endophytes in leaves of trees and saplings of Euterpe oleracea was carried out over two years. An average of 25% of the leaf discs taken from 10 trees and 10 saplings over four samplings were colonized by endophytic fungi. Overall fungal colonization was positively correlated with leaf age, plant growth stages, site, and the interactive effects of growth stage times season and growth stage times site. Fewer isolates were recovered from younger than from older leaves, and from trees than from saplings. Fifty-seven species and six familial taxa assigned mainly to the Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina were isolated. Xylaria cubensis and Letendraeopsis palmarum were the most common species. Significant differences in the number of isolates of the 21 most frequent species were observed with respect to plant growth stages, season and site. A community ordination analysis showed that depending upon the host tissue, vein or intervein, trees and saplings located at different sites were characterized by distinct endophytic communities.

Jardim, M. A. G. and P. Y. Kageyama (1994). Phenology of flowering and fruiting in a natural population of cabbage-palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the Amazon estuary. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Serie Botanica 10(1): 77-82.

This study examines aspects of flowering and fruiting of a natural population of the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the Amazon estuary. Fieldwork was carried on Combu Island, municipality of Acara, State of Para, Brazil, during two years (1988-1989). E. oleracea flowers principally from February until May and fruits mainly between June and December.

Jardim, M. A. G. and P. Y. Kageyama (1994). Phenology of flowering and fruiting of a natural population of acai palm in the Amazon Estuary. IPEF, Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Florestais(47): 62-65. Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Departamento de Botanica, Caixa Postal 399, 66017-970, Belem, PA, Brazil.

Fieldwork for this study was carried out in the Combu Island, in Acara, State of Para, Brazil, over two years (1988-89). E. oleracea flowered principally from February until May and fruited mainly between June and December.

Jardim, M. A. G. and J. S. Rombold (1994). Effects of adubation and thinning on acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) fruit yield from a natural population. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Serie Botanica 10(2): 283-293.

This study examines aspects of adubation and thinning in population of acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.). Fieldwork was conducted on Combu Island, Municipality of Acara, State of Para, Brasil. The experimental designed was randomized blocks with four treatments with four replications. The prescriptions for each treatment are as follows: 1. control; 2. selective thinning within clumps of acai; 3. fertilizer applications and 4. thinning + fertilizer applications. The results indicate that thinning can significantly increase yields of acai fruits; fertilization appears to be less worthwhile; the absence of a response by the acai palm to the heavy application of N-P-K fertilizer in this experiment is probably due to a complex series of soil transformations which occur in flooded soils.

Lubrano, C., J. R. Robin, et al. (1994). Fatty-Acid, Sterol and Tocopherol Composition of Oil from the Fruit Mesocarp of 6 Palm Species in French-Guiana. Oleagineux . Feb 49(2): 59-65.

Oils from the fruit mesocarps of six palm species were studied (Jessenia bataua Jacq., Astrocaryum vulgare C. Martius, Euterpe oleracea C. Martius, Oenocarpus bacaba C. Martius, Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cortes, Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.). The fatty acid composition, determined by gas chromatography (GC), revealed the predominance of oleic acid in all the oils (39 to 70 %). This analysis was confirmed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of the triglycerides. GC analysis of the sterols revealed the existence of delta 5 sterols and beta sitosterol in particular (36 to 78 %) in the oils. Finally, an HPLC study of the tocopherols and tocotrienols generally showed a strong predominance of alpha tocopherol in the banding patterns, but also the existence of tocotrienols in varying proportions. Only the oil from the Elaeis oleifera H.B.K. Cortes species was richer in tocotrienols than in tocopherols.

Lubrano, C., J. R. Robin, et al. (1994). Fatty acid, sterol and tocopherol composition of oil from the fruit mesocarp of six palm species in French Guiana. Oleagineux Paris 49(2): 59-65. Centre de Recherche Yves Rocher 7, 94117 Arcueil Cedex, France.

Oil from the mesocarp of Jessenia bataua, Astrocaryum vulgare, Euterpe oleracea, Oenocarpus bacaba, Elaeis oleifera and Bactris gasipaes fruits was analysed. The fatty acid composition, determined by GC, revealed the predominance of oleic acid in all the oils (39-70%). This analysis was confirmed by HPLC analysis of the triglycerides. GC analysis of the sterols revealed the existence of delta5 sterols and beta-sitosterol in particular (36-78%) in the oils. HPLC analysis of the tocopherols and tocotrienols generally showed a strong predominance of alpha-tocopherol in the banding patterns but also the existence of tocotrienols in varying proportions. Only the oil from the oil palm E. oleifera was richer in tocotrienols than in tocopherols.

Lubrano, C., J. R. Robin, et al. (1994). Fatty acid, sterol and tocopherol composition of oil from the fruit mesocarp of six palm species in French Guiana. Oleagineux 49(2): 59-65. Cent. de Recherche Yves ROCHER 7, 94117 Arcueil Cedex, France

Oils from the fruit mesocarps of 6 palm species were studied (Jessenia bataua Jacq., Astrocaryum vulgare C. Martius, Euterpe oleracea C. Martius, Oenocarpus bacaba C. Martius, Elaeis oleifera H. B. K. Cortes, Bactris gasipaes H. B. K.). The fatty acid composition, determined by GC, revealed the predominance of oleic acid in all the oils (39-70%). This was confirmed by HPLC analysis of the triglycerides. GC analysis of the sterols revealed the existence of delta 5 sterols and beta sitosterol in particular (36-78%) in the oils. Finally, an HPLC study of the tocopherols and tocotrienols generally showed a strong predominance of alpha tocopherol in the banding patterns, but also the existence of tocotrienols in varying proportions. Only the oil from the E. oleifera H. B. K. Cortes species was richer in tocotrienols than tocopherols.

Ojeda, P. D. and C. M. Bravo (1994). Biology and control of Pleseobyrsa bicincta Monte (Hem.: Tingidae), a serious oil palm pest in Peru. Oleagineux Paris 49(4): 145-154. Jefe del Sector de Sanidad Vegetal y Experimentacion de Palmas del Espino S.A., San Martin, Peru.

The biology of Pleseobyrsa bicincta was investigated in a plantation of 3-year-old oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) at Uchiza, San Martin, Peru. Average temperature and RH were 25.4øC and 82.9%, resp. The longevities of the different development stages of this pest were 16.9, 24.3, 22.3 and 37.4 days for eggs, 5 larval instars, male adults and female adults, resp. P. bicincta was found on the underside of leaflets and the damage it caused was related to the incidence of the Pestalotiopsis fungus. Eggs were laid on the surface of leaves in groups of 33.04. The larvae lived in colonies whilst adults lived either separately or in groups. The sex ratio was 1:1. Several wild palms such as Euterpe oleracea, Bactris gasipaes and Jessenia batawa were not food plants. The efficacy of monocrotophos (Fordrin 600 EC) in the control of this pest was also investigated; monocrotophos was applied at 4 doses (6.00, 7.50, 11.00 and 14.00 cm3 of commercial product per plant) via the roots and 100% mortality was obtained 3 days after treatment with 14 cm3; the other doses also caused significant mortality.

Pena, D. O. and M. B. Calderon (1994). Biology and Control of Plesobyrsa-Bicinta Monte (Hem Tingidae), a Serious Oil Palm Pest in Peru. Oleagineux . Apr 49(4): 145-154.

A biological study was made of the bug Pleseobyrsa bicincta Monte, inventoried on oil palm, in a field at the Palmas del Espino S.A. plantation (Uchiza, San Martin). The temperature was 25.4-degrees-C and the relative humidity 82.9%. The duration of the different development stages was: egg, 16.9 days; nymph with 5 instars, 24.3 days; male adult, 22.3 days; female adult, 37.4 days. The complete biological cycle was 63.5 days for the male and 78.6 days for the female. The bug is found on the underside of leaflets and the damage it causes is related to the incidence of the Pestalotiopsis fungus. The eggs are laid on the surface in groups of 33.04 on average. The nymphs live in colonies and the adults either separately or in groups. The sex ratio is 1:1. Several wild palms such as the ''huasai'' (Euterpe oleracea), the ''pijuayo'' (Bactris gasipaes) or the ''ungurahui'' (Jessenia batawa) etc. have been ruled out as host plants.As a control measure, monocrotophos (Fordrin 600 EC) was used at four doses (6.00, 7.50, 11.00 and 14.00 cc of commercial product per plant) applied by root uptake. 100% mortality was obtained three days after treatment with 14 cc.

Rodrigues, F. J. A., A. P. Camarao, et al. (1994). Identification and evaluation of agroindustrial by-products for supplementary feeding of buffaloes in the Amazon. Proceedings 4th World Buffalo Congress, Sao Paulo, Brazil 2: 286-288. Brazilian Agricultural Research Organization (EMBRAPA), Agroforestry Research Centre for the Eastern Amazon (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.

Results are summarized for a survey carried out to characterize regional agroindustrial byproducts and crop residues and to obtain information concerning production, availability, economic value and location of the materials. The byproducts examined were: acai (Euterpe oleracea) - residues from leaves after sheath removal; oilpalm (Elaeis guineensis) - pulp fibre and kernel cake; passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) - bagasse and seed cake; cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) - pod straw and residual leaves; cocoa (Theobroma cacao) - fruit shell and seed coat; cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) - cake and seed coat + linter; rice (Oryza sativa) - bran and seed coat; anattotree (Bixa orellana) - seed hulls and crop residue; coconut (Cocos nucifera) - cake. Each byproduct was evaluated by analysis of DM, organic matter, CP, fat, NDF, ADF, cellulose, lignin and silica, and the in vitro digestibility of organic matter was determined.

Rodrigues, K. F. (1994). The Foliar Fungal Endophytes of the Amazonian Palm Euterpe-Oleracea. Mycologia . May Jun 86(3): 376-385.

A survey of the fungal endophytes in leaves of trees and saplings of Euterpe oleracea was carried out over two years. An average of 25% of the leaf discs taken from 10 trees and 10 saplings over four samplings were colonized by endophytic fungi. Overall fungal colonization was positively correlated with leaf age, plant growth stages, site, and the interactive effects of growth stage x season and growth stage x site. Fewer isolates were recovered from younger than from older leaves, and from trees than from saplings. Fifty-seven species and six familial taxa assigned mainly to the Ascomycotina and Deuteromvcotina were isolated. Xylaria cubensis and Letendraeopsis palmarum were the most common species. Significant differences in the number of isolates of the 21 most frequent species were observed with respect to plant growth stages, season and site. A community ordination analysis showed that depending upon the host tissue, vein or inter-vein, trees and saplings located at different sites were characterized by distinct endophytic communities.

Rodrigues, K. F. (1994). Nursery growth of Euterpe oleracea as a function of substrate and container size. Acta hortic. Wageningen : International Society for Horticultural Science. Aug 360: 195-209.

Rodrigues, K. F. (1994). Nursery growth of Euterpe oleracea as a function of substrate and container size. Acta hortic. Wageningen : International Society for Horticultural Science. Aug 360: 195-209.

Rodrigues, K. F. (1994). The foliar fungal endophytes of the Amazonian palm Euterpe oleracea. Mycologia 86(3): 376-385. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, USA.

A survey of the fungal endophytes in leaves of trees and saplings of E. oleracea was carried out over 2 years. An average of 25% of the leaf discs taken from 10 trees and 10 saplings over 4 samplings were colonized by endophytic fungi. Overall fungal colonization was positively correlated with leaf age, plant growth stages, site and the interactive effects of growth stage X season and growth stage X site. Fewer isolates were recovered from younger than from older leaves, and from trees than from saplings. Fifty-seven species and 6 familial taxa assigned mainly to the Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina were isolated. Xylaria cubensis and Letendraeopsis palmarum were the most common species. Significant differences in the number of isolates of the 21 most frequent species were observed with respect to plant growth stages, season and site. A community ordination analysis showed that depending upon the host tissue, vein or intervein, trees and saplings located at different sites were characterized by distinct endophytic communities.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1994). Letendraeopsis-Palmarum, a New Genus and Species of Loculoascomycetes. Mycologia . Mar Apr 86(2): 254-258.

Letendraeopsis palmarum, a new genus and species, is described in the Pleosporales, Tubeufiaceae, as an endophyte inhabiting internal tissue of leaves of the palm Euterpe oleracea. While it is not known to sporulate in nature and does not form an anamorph, L. palmarum produces abundant pallid ascomata in culture. The ascomata lack a preformed ostiolar opening.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1994). Letendraeposis palmarum, a new genus and species of loculascomycetes. Mycologia 86(2): 254-258.

Letendraeopsis palmarum, a new genus and species, is described in the Pleosporales, Tubeufiaceae, as an endophyte inhabiting internal tissue of leaves of the palm Euterpe oleracea. While it is not known to sporulate in nature and does not form an anamorph, L. palmarum produces abundant pallid ascomata in culture. The ascomata lack a preformed ostiolar opening.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1994). Letendraeopsis palmarum, a new genus and species of Loculoascomycetes. Mycologia 86(2): 254-258. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, USA.

L. palmarum, a new genus and species, is described in the Pleosporales, Tubeufiaceae, as an endophyte inhabiting internal tissue of leaves of the palm Euterpe oleracea. While it is not known to sporulate in nature and does not form an anamorph, L. palmarum produces abundant pallid ascomata in culture. The ascomata lack a preformed ostiolar opening.

(1993). Cultivation of heart of palm trees: end of predatory exploitation. Agronomico 45(1): 50-51. Secao de Plantas Tropicais, IAC, Caixa Postal 28, Campinas, SP, Brazil.

The Euterpe edulis ('palmiteiro') Breeding Programme at IAC has, during 10 years, selected a hybrid (E. edulis X E. oleracea) with a short growth period (4-6 years), multiple trunks and edible hearts of large size and superior texture and flavour, which can be cultivated even under very sunny conditions. The hybrid is currently propagated by tissue culture and its large-scale release is planned within 2 years. The adaptation of the alternative species 'pupunha' palm (Bactris gasipaes), native to the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazonia and to Costa Rica, to the State of Sao Paulo is also under way. This tree, from which fruits have been used as food for centuries and which is cultivated commercially in Costa Rica (ca. 2000 ha planted), matures earlier (18-36 months) and is able to produce multiple trunks with >2.5 cm diameter edible hearts without special fertilizer input.

Bovi, M. L. A., P. F. d. A. Tedrus, et al. (1993). Nursery growth of Euterpe oleracea as a function of substrate and container size. International symposium on ornamental palms, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil(360): 195-209. Instituto Agronomico, Caixa Postal 28, CEP 13001-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil.

The effects of mixtures of soil and cotton residue compost at 1:1 or 3:1 (v/v), in combination with 5 sizes of polyethylene bags, were investigated for the growth of E. oleracea seedlings. The 1:1 substrate mixture gave better results than the 3:1 mixture for most characters evaluated. The greatest differences were verified for size of plastic bags. Bags with the largest diameters (21.5 X 21.0 cm (T2) and 21.5 X 25 cm (T5)) promoted better growth both of aerial parts and root systems than narrower and taller bags (18 X 25 cm (T3) and 18 X 29.5 cm (T4)). One of the reasons for this better growth may be the higher water retention capacity verified in T2 and T5 bags. An attack of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Glomerella cingulata] occurred during the experiment. Plants in T2 and T5 bags were healthier than those in T3 and T4 bags. A higher percentage of infected seedlings occurred in the 1:1 substrate than in the 3:1 substrate.

Deoliveira, E. P. (1993). Influence of Different Cropping Systems on the Density of Terrestrial Invertebrates in Varzea Soil of Central Amazonia. Amazoniana Limnologia Et Oecologia Regionalis Systemae Fluminis Amazonas 12(3-4): 495-508.

The possible effects of cropping systems on terrestrial invertebrates and on soil physical characteristics (temperature and humidity) have been studied in varzea areas of the Terra Nova region. The habitats studied included: monoculture of cacao (Theobroma cacao) and of quiabo (Hibiscus esculentus); mixed cultures of manga (Mangifera indica), jambo (Eugenia malaccencis), acai (Euterpe oleracea), seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis), and banana (Musa sapientum) and a pasture; using a ''forest'' as control area. The methodology of Berlese-Tullgren was used with samples taken between March 1987 and March 1988. The analysis of the different biotopes indicated a dominance by Acari in the five habitats, with a greater percentage in the H. esculentus monoculture (86.52 %) and in pasture (80.50 %). Collembola is the second group, with an expressive density in the ''forest'' (27.52 %). The presence of Diplopoda and Isopoda in the T. cacao and H. esculentus monocultures (1.46 % and 0.64 %, respectively) is particularly important due to their role as primary decomposers in forest habitats.

Kahn, F., C. M. Hladik, et al. (1993). Amazonian palms: food resources for the management of forest ecosystems. Tropical forests, people and food: biocultural interactions and applications to development. ORSTOM, CP 09747, 70 001-970 Brasilia DF, Brazil.

A checklist of palms with high potential as food sources is given. The list includes Bactris gasipaes, Elaeis oleifera, Euterpe oleracea, Euterpe precatoria, Jessenia bataua, Mauritia flexuosa and Orbignya phalerata. For these palms and several others there is an appendix providing vernacular names, description, ecology, food and economic potential and management system.

Oliveira, E. P. D. (1993). Influence of different cropping systems on the density of terrestrial invertebrates in varzea soil of Central Amazonia. Amazoniana 12(3-4): 495-508.

The possible effects of cropping systems on terrestrial invertebrates and on soil physical characteristics (temperature and humidity) have been studied in varze areas of the Terra Nova region. The habitats studied included: monoculture of cacao (Theobroma cacao) and of quiabo (Hibiscus esculentus); mixed cultures of manga (Mangifera indica), jambo (Eugenia malaccencis), acai (Euterpe oleracea), seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis), and banana (Musa sapientum) and a pasture; using a "forest" as control area. The methodology of Berlese-Tullgren was used with samples taken between March 1987 and March 1988. The analysis of the different biotopes indicated a dominance by Acari in the five habitats, with a greater percentage in the H. esculentus monoculture (86.52%) and in pasture (80.50%). Collembola is the second group, with an expressive density in the "forest" (27.52%). The presence of Diplopoda and Isopoda in the T. cacao and H. esculentus monocultures (1.46% and 0.64%, respectively) is particularly important due to their role as primary decomposers in forest habitats.

Pelacani, C. R., L. E. M. Oliveira, et al. (1993). Dry matter production and distribution in plants of inga (Inga vera Wild.) and acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) grown under root system flooded conditions. International symposium on tropical fruits. Improving the quality of tropical fruits, Vitoria, Brazil(370): 181-188. EMBRAPA/CNPMF, CP 007, Cruz das Almas-BA, 44.380-000, Brazil.

The effect of flooding of the root system on the growth of young I. vera and E. oleracea plants was evaluated in a greenhouse experiment. After 55 days of flooding, the total accumulation of dry matter in E. oleracea plants was reduced by 10%; the accumulation of dry matter in the shoot fell by 18.5% and the dry matter in the roots increased by 21%. In I. vera plants, the accumulation of dry matter in the shoot and roots was reduced by 70 and 72%, respectively. In this species, flooding resulted in a greater partitioning of photosynthate for the development of adventitious roots than for principal or lateral roots. The results indicate that E. oleracea plants are suitable for use in revegetation programmes in regions subject to periodical flooding, since their growth is not significantly affected by water stress.

Rodrigues, F. J. A., A. P. Camarao, et al. (1993). Evaluation of agroindustrial byproducts for feeding ruminants. Documentos Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido(71). EMBRAPA, Centro de Pesquisa Agroflorestal da Amazonia Oriental, CPATU, Belem, PA, Brazil.

In Amazonia, Brazil, feed for cattle is based almost entirely on roughage because the cost of concentrates makes their use uneconomic. Local byproducts of the agricultural industry were examined as to their potential as an alternative feed source. Values for DM, crude protein, organic matter, ash, ether extract, digestibility in vitro, neutral detergent, fibre, acid detergent fibre, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin are tabulated for different byproducts obtained after the processing of palm (Euterpe oleracea and Elaeis guineensis), cocoa, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), cotton, coconut (Cocus nucifera), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) and Bixa orellana (annatto extraction). It was concluded that byproducts which could be used successfully in feeds were meal of cocoa, palms (E. guineensis) and cotton, cocoa husks, rice bran, vines of cowpeas and passion fruit husks.

Rodrigues, K. F., A. Leuchtmann, et al. (1993). Endophytic species of Xylaria: Cultural and isozymic studies. Sydowia 45(1): 116-138.

Cultural descriptions of endophytic Xylaria species from an Amazonian palm, Euterpe oleracea, are presented. Eighty-one isolates representing 15 species of Xylaria were examined for isozyme variation by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Results from the isozyme analysis revealed a high degree of intra- and interspecific diversity among Xylaria species. (Species identified were: X. adscendens, X. allantoidea, X. arbuscula, X. coccophora, X. cubensis and X. curta.)

Haggar, J. P. and J. J. Ewel (1992). Experiments on the ecological basis of sustainability: early findings on nitrogen, phosphorus, and root systems. International symposium on forest soils, Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela 19(6): 347-351. La Selva, Organization for Tropical Studies, Apdo. 676, 2050 San Pedro, Costa Rica.

Experiments were established on fertile soil in the humid lowlands of Costa Rica to examine the effects of complementary use of resources between species and stand turnover time on sustainability. The experimental plantations at La Selva contain 4 treatments, 3 of which are tree monocultures (Cedrela odorata, Cordia alliodora or Hyeronima alchorneoides) subject to rotations of 1, 4 or 16 yr. The fourth treatment is a mixed planting (also subject to a 16-yr rotation) of the trees plus 3 monocots: Euterpe macrospadix, E. oleracea and Heliconia imbricata. This paper reports early findings concerning soil nutrients and the comparative ability of the main tree species to exploit the soil. Nitrogen is abundant in the soil, with daily mineralization and nitrification rates of 0.85 and 1.0 kg/ha, respectively. Phosphorus is also abundant and preliminary data indicate that much of the organically bound P is under microbial control. Root systems of the 3 tree species differed considerably, ranging from a dense, compact mass of roots in H. alchorneoides that thoroughly exploit a modest soil volume, to sparse roots that extend far from the base of the tree in Cordia alliodora and massive starch-rich roots that enable the tree to respond to insect (Hypsipyla grandella) attack in Cedrela odorata.

Iaderoza, M., V. L. S. Baldini, et al. (1992). Anthocyanins from fruits of acai (Euterpe oleracea, Mart.) and jucara (Euterpe edulis, Mart.). Tropical Science 32(1): 41-46. Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Caixa Postal 139, Campinas, SP 13073, Brazil.

As part of a screening programme for new Brazilian sources of natural red dyes for the food industry, the anthocyanin pigments from fruits of acai (E. oleracea) and jucara (E. edulis) were extracted with 1% HCl in methanol, purified by descendent chromatography and identified by chemical and physical analyses. The pigments in both fruits were identified as cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-rutinoside. The anthocyanin contents of the 2 species were 336 mg/100 g and 1347 mg/100 g, respectively.

Lescure, J. P., A. d. Castro, et al. (1992). Extractivism in central Amazonia. Bois et Forets des Tropiques(231): 35-51.

The term extractivism is defined as the gathering and marketing of forest products other than wood. The historical background and socioeconomic importance of extractivism in the Brazilian state of Amazonas are outlined. The exploitation and uses of a wide variety of forest products are described: latex (from Hevea spp.); edible gums (Couma spp.); Brazil nuts (from Bertholletia excelsa) and other edible plant products such as those from the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria) and oil from seeds of the babacu palm (Orbignia [Orbignya] martiana); essential oils (e.g. linalool from Aniba rosaeodora); aromatic plants (cumaru, Dipteryx odorata); oleoresins (from copaiba - Copaifera spp. or jatoba - Hymenaea courbaril); medicinal plants such as andiroba (Carapa guianensis) or ucuuba (Virola surinamensis, V. sebifera) - oil from the seeds is used for cosmetic or pharmacological preparations; and fibres from palms (Attalea funifera, Leopoldinia piassaba, Astrocaryum spp.). Extractivism accounted for about 20% of the value (in US $) of exports from Amazonas in 1984-88, although this valuation is based on goods which were exported (abroad and to other parts of Brazil) via Manaus, and thus does not take account of products used within the state. The role of extractivism in developing the economy of the state, and its potential as an alternative to ranching and/or logging is discussed.

Melo, C. F. M. d., W. C. Barbosa, et al. (1992). Anthocyanins from fruits of acai (Euterpe oleracea, Mart) and jucara (Euterpe edulis, Mart). Trop Sci. London : Whurr Publishers Ltd: 41-46.

Melo, C. F. M. d., W. C. Barbosa, et al. (1992). Anthocyanins from fruits of acai (Euterpe oleracea, Mart) and jucara (Euterpe edulis, Mart). Trop Sci. London : Whurr Publishers Ltd: 41-46.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1992). Idriella species endophytic in palms. Mycotaxon 43: 271-276. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York 10458-5126, USA.

During a survey of endophytic fungi in leaves of the palm Euterpe oleracea near Belem, Brazil, 3 new species of Idriella were isolated. I. euterpes, I. asaicola and I. amazonica are described. A key to Idriella species endophytic in palms is provided.

Campos, S. D. S., M. L. A. Bovi, et al. (1991). Characterization of palm hearts obtained from several crossing combinations between Euterpe oleracea and E. edulis growing under different conditions. I. Raw material. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 26(5): 637-646. ITAL, Caixa Postal 139, CEP 13073, Campinas, SP, Brazil.

Kahn, F. (1991). Palms as key swamp forest resources in Amazonia. For. Ecol. Manage. 38: 3-4.

Native palms are present in all wetland forests in the Amazon Basin. They provide many useful products, and have a significant place in the daily life of most inhabitants of Amazonia. Only a few species, however, have economic potential as edible fruit, oil, palm heart for canning, fiber, and starch, or constitute a gene resource that could be tapped for genetic improvement of cultivated or promising native species. The species of economic importance, mainly Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria, Jessenia bataua , and Mauritia flexuosa , are not equally distributed in wetland forest ecosystems. They form dense and extensive populations in the seasonal swamp forests of upland valleys, and on swampy areas which are permanently flooded by standing water in the floodplain of the main rivers. In both cases, the soils are unsuitable for agriculture.

Nogueira, O. L., A. J. d. Conto, et al. (1991). Recommendations for the cultivation of perennial species in mixed systems. Documentos Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umedo(56). EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, CEP 66001 Belem, PA, Brazil.

The systems investigated in this Brazilian study were: (1) rubber [Hevea brasiliensis], cocoa [Theobroma cacao] and bananas [Musa] intercropped with maize [Zea mays] and cowpeas [Vigna unguiculata]; (2) rubber, black pepper [Piper nigrum] and cocoa with maize and cowpeas; (3) rubber and urucu [Bixa orellana] (cocoa can be used as a substitute if the urucu fails) with maize and cowpeas; (4) urucu and maracuja [passion fruit, Passiflora edulis] with maize and cowpeas; (5) citrus fruits (orange, lemon or tangerine) and maracuja with maize and cowpeas; (6) cupuacu [Theobroma grandiflorum], pupunha [Bactris gasipaes] and bananas with maize and cowpeas; and (7) cupuacu, acai [Euterpe oleracea] and bananas with maize. Details are given of cultural operations, management and yields.

Rodrigues, K. F. (1991). Endophytic fungi in Euterpe oleracea Mart., with emphasis on Xylariaceae. Boletim Do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Serie Botanica 7(2): 429-439.

Endophytic fungi in the leaves of Euterpe oleracea Mart., growing in floodplains of the Brazilian Amazon, are investigated. Xylariaceous fungi presented the highest frequency of infection within leaves, as well as the greatest ability to colonize different plant tissues. Tissue specificity was demonstrated by Anthostomella sp., Xylaria adscendens, X. allantoidea, and X. telfairii. Morphological features of Xylariaceae species in pure cultures are also presented.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. G. Godoy, et al. (1990). Juvenile-mature correlations in assai palms. Bragantia 49(2): 321-334.

Juvenile-mature correlation coefficients relating two vegetative traits of Euterpe oleracea Mart are presented as an aid to early and indirect selection for heart of palm yield in breeding work with this palm. Significant age to age collection coefficients were found for almost all paired comparison for plant girth and tillering number, with increasing values over time. This fact, together with the expected gain obtained by selection practiced, especially over palm girth, suggest that indirect phenotypic selection on this palm could start as early as seventeen months, with greater probability of selecting superior genotypes after two years after planting.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. G. Godoy, et al. (1990). Phenotypic relationship between non-destructive traits and palmito yield of assai palms. Bragantia 49(1): 69-82.

Three vegetative characters and palmito yield components of assai palms (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) were studied in an experiment at Ubatuba, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, in order to identify non-destructive traits that could be used to estimate yield in superior material evaluation and selection. Partial correlation coefficients showed significancy for palm girth and the main palmito yield components (weight, diameter and length), but not with the edible portion of the stipe. No significant partial correlation coefficient were found between the number of leaves and palm weight, indicating that the simple correlation coefficient found before, between those traits, were inflated by palm girth. Palm girth was, among the studied traits, the one that contributed the most for palmito yield as estimated by its weight and diameter. It accounts for over 65% of the variation in total heart of palm weight, 35% of its weight and over 50% of its diameter. Due to the facility to be measured, the palm girth, or its diameter, should be used for evaluation and selection of superior palms in plant breeding of field experiments.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. G. Godoy, et al. (1990). Phenotypic correlations between characters at the juvenile and adult stages in assai palm. Bragantia 49(2): 321-334. Secao de Plantas Tropicais, Instituto Agronomico de Campinas, Caixa Postal 28, 13001 Campinas, SP, Brazil.

A study of 45 Euterpe oleracea palms from 17-months-old to 11-years-old showed significant age to age correlation coefficients for almost all paired comparisons of plant girth and tiller number, with increasing values over time. For palm heart production, phenotypic selection is recommended from 17 months, with best results obtained after 2 years growth.

Strudwick, J., G. T. Prance, et al. (1990). Commercial management for palm heart from Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Palmae) in the Amazon estuary and tropical forest conservation. New directions in the study of plants and people. Advances in Economic Botany 8: 241-248. Dept. of Biology, Lehman College, Bronx, NY 10468, USA.

Euterpe oleracea is a common multi-stemmed palm in the seasonally flooded, riparian forests of the Amazon estuary, and is now the major world source of palm heart. Possible benefits of planned commercial management systems for the palm-heart industry and for soil and conservation in general are discussed; a working example of a commercial management scheme is described.

Tostain, O., J. J. d. Granville, et al. (1990). Composition of the forests of French Guiana: specific formations. Bois et Forets des Tropiques(220): 33-67.

Papers are presented on: mangroves (Lescure, J.P.; Tostain, O.); palms (Granville, J.J. de), including indigenous and introduced palms, and uses of indigenous palms; cabbage palm (Euterpe oleracea) groves (Ricci, J.P.), including biology and harvesting, canning and trade of palm hearts; and fruit trees (Fouque, A.).

Alvim, R., A. d. C. Virgens, et al. (1989). Agrosilviculture as the science of earning money from the soil: anticipated recuperation and remuneration of capital in establishing perennial tree crops. Boletim Tecnico Comissao Executivo do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira(161). Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau, Ilheus-Itabuna, Bahia, Brazil.

To reduce the period of economic immaturity in rubber, oil palm and cocoa plantations, each crop was interplanted in the following way: rubber with Pueraria phaseoloides, bananas or Euterpe oleracea; oil palm with Manihot esculenta, pineapples, Piper nigrum or Gliricidia sepium; and cocoa with bananas, Bactris gasipaes or P. nigrum. This method gave a more efficient use of the land compared with monoculture of each main crop.

Anderson, A. B., M. A. G. Jardim, et al. (1989). Costs and benefits of floodplain forest management by rural inhabitants in the Amazon estuary: a case study of acai palm production. Fragile lands of Latin America: strategies for sustainable development. Museu Goeldi, Belem, Brazil.

A brief account is given of forests where acai palm (Euterpe oleracea, a multipurpose species producing a wide variety of market and subsistence products) occurs in the floodplain ('varzea') of the Amazon estuary, Brazil, and of the harvesting of both fruits and palm hearts. A field experiment was established on Ilha das Oncas, near Belem, to quantify the costs and benefits of managing native populations of acai. The 4 treatments, each applied to 4 plots (32X32 m), were: control (no treatment); pruning of acai clumps; thinning of forest competitors; and pruning + thinning. Fruit productivity per area and per vegetative clump was n.s.d. between treatments. A comparison of fruit productivity per stem showed significant differences between the control and thinning alone or with pruning. Analysis of variance revealed a significant effect due to thinning, but the effect of pruning alone was not significant. Results indicate that rational extraction of palm hearts (equivalent to the pruning experiment) does not reduce fruit harvest. Economic analysis indicated that the benefits outweigh the costs by US$109.83/ha. Although this extensive form of forest management provides relatively low economic returns per unit area, it appears to be economically rational because of its low cost requirement, minimum risk and apparent sustainability.

Gely, A., M. Eldin, et al. (1989). A strategic response to the risks to agriculture: the agroforestry systems of the Amazon estuary. Le risque en agriculture. Institut de Botanique, rue A. Broussonet, 34000 Montpellier, France.

Three systems of sustained yield management are studied on islands in the Amazon estuary, Para, Brazil. On the Ilha das Oncas, 3 management zones are identified. In gardens, tree species which do not produce useful products are removed, while species such as Spondias mombin, Euterpe oleracea and Hevea brasiliensis are retained and exploited. Introduced crop species are grown mainly in raised baskets, to protect them from domestic animals and flooding. Patches of managed forest are scattered throughout the natural forest. Selective felling is carried out to favour useful species, particularly E. oleracea and some introduced fruit tree species. The only management required is cleaning of the undestorey once or twice a year (July and Oct.). The natural virgin or secondary forest is exploited for timber, fuelwood, food, drink, medicines and manure. On the Ilha Urua, forest cover is restored after slash-and-burn agriculture by using natural competition between species. Sugar cane, growing with the natural vegetation, is harvested after 2 yr. During the third year, selective felling of some native tree species (used for fuelwood) is carried out, conserving some useful species. Seeds of E. oleracea (a competitor of invasive species) are sown, and fruit trees, particularly Theobroma cacao, are planted. When T. cacao starts flowering (about the fifth year), the competing E. oleracea is removed. Canopy species which compete directly with understorey species are girdled and used for timber or fuelwood. On the Ilha Saraca, a farmer felled and sold forest trees to finance the establishment of a T. cacao plantation. However, he retained a reserve of seed trees to ensure the regeneration of the exploited species, using the trees as a financial reserve to be exploited only when necessary.

McIntyre, G. and C. Barbe (1989). The tolerance of young cabbage palms to pre and post emergence herbicide treatments. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de l'Ile Maurice 68(1): 102-106. Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute, Reduit, Mauritius.

Pre-em. applications of diuron at 3-4 kg or diuron + atrazine at 4 + 0.5 kg gave the best control of weeds of cabbage palms [Euterpe oleracea]. Post-em. diuron + paraquat at 4 + 0.5 kg also gave satisfactory control. For control of problem weeds including Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus and Paspalum sp., post-em. glyphosate at 4 kg was very effective but was phytotoxic to young palms. Asulox [asulam] at 3-4 kg post-em. also gave safe and effective control of Paspalum sp. Bromacil, and terbacil both at 2-4 kg pre-em. and bromacil + paraquat or terbacil + paraquat both at 2-4 + 0.5 kg post-em. were too phytotoxic to the crop for use in weed control.

Nogueira, J. N. and E. Silva (1989). Comparative effect of heat, SO2 and ascorbic acid on the activity of polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase in some fruits and vegetables. Anais da Escola Superior de Agricultura 'Luiz de Queiroz' 46(2): 453-471. ESA "Luiz de Queiroz", Universidade de Sao Paulo, 13.400 Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.

To prevent enzymatic browning, extracts of several fruit and vegetable species were treated for 2 minutes at 70, 80 or 90øC, or with SO2 (0.05-0.2%) or ascorbic acid (0.1-1.0%). For bananas, peaches, apples, carrots, cauliflowers and palmito (Euterpe edulis), heat was the best treatment. SO2 was more efficient for pears, whereas ascorbic acid gave the best result with figs and potatoes.

Peters, C. M., M. J. Balick, et al. (1989). Oligarchic forest of economic plants in Amazonia: Utilization and conservation of an important tropical resource. Conservation Biology 3(4): 341-349.

Tropical forests dominated by only one or two tree species occupy tens of millions of hectares in Amazonia. In many cases, the dominant species produce fruits, seeds, or oils of economic importance. Oligarchic (Gr. oligo = few, archic = dominated or ruled by) forests of six economic species, i.e., Euterpe oleracea, Grias peruviana, Jessenia bataua, Mauritia flexuosa, Myrciaria dubia, and Orbignya phalerata, were studied in Brazil and Peru. Natural populations of these species contain from 100 to 3,000 conspecific adult trees/ba and produce up to 11.1 metric tons of fruit/ha/yr. These plant populations are utilized, and occasionally managed by rural inhabitants have only a minimal impact on forest structure and function, yet can generate substantial economic returns. Market-oriented extraction of the fruits produced by oligarchic forests appears to represent a promising alternative for reconciling the development and conservation of Amazonian forests.

Peters, C. M., M. J. Balick, et al. (1989). Oligarchic forests of economic plants in Amazonia: utilization and conservation of an important tropical resource. Conservation Biology 3(4): 341-349. Institute of Economic Botany, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458, USA.

Tropical forests dominated by only one or two tree species (oligarchic forests) occupy millions of hectares in Amazonia. In many cases, the dominant species produce fruits, seeds or oils of economic importance. Oligarchic forests of 6 economic species (Euterpe oleracea, Grias peruviana, Jessenia bataua, Mauritia flexuosa, Myrciaria dubia and Orbignya phalerata) were studied in Peru and Brazil in 1986-87. Natural populations of these species contained 100-3000 conspecific adult trees/ha and produced up to 11.1 t of fruit/ha per annum. These plant populations were used and occasionally managed by rural inhabitants in the region. Properly controlled periodic fruit harvests had a minimal impact on forest structure and function but could generate substantial economic returns. It is suggested that market-orientated extraction of the fruits produced by oligarchic forests appears to be a promising alternative for reconciling the development and conservation of Amazonian forests.

Scariot, A. O., F. A. T. Oliveira, et al. (1989). Species richness, density and distribution of palms in an Eastern Amazonian seasonally flooded forest. Principes 33(4): 172-179.

Species richness, density and distribution of a palm community found in a seasonal swamp forest in the Eastern Amazon Basin (Serra dos Carajas, Para, Brazil) is here reported. In the hectare sampled, eight species in eight genera were found. Of the 3,975 palm individuals in the study area, 60% belong to only one species, Orbignya phalerata, which occurs in greater density in the less humid areas, while Socratea exorrhiza and Geonoma baculifera prefer the more humid sites. Results are discussed in terms of soils, water and light. (The other species are the following: Euterpe oleracea, Astrocaryum munbaca, Bactris sp., Oenocarpus distichus and Maximiliana maripa).

(1988). Proceedings of the first Brazilian meeting of palmito researchers held at Curitiba, 26-28 May 1987. Documentos Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Florestas(19).

The texts are given of 30 papers presented at the first meeting of palmito researchers. Species covered in the papers are Euterpe edulis, E. oleracea, Bactris gasipaes and Atrocarium jauari [Astrocaryum jauari]. The topics included growth and development of palmito, management of palmito plantations, palmito seeds and processing of palmito.

Campos, S. D. S. and C. A. Pedrassi (1988). [Texture profiles of palm hearts from the palm types acai (Euterpe oleracea) and jucara (E. edulis).]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 18(2): 161-170.

Kahn, F. and P. R. Leopoldo (1988). Palms as key swamp forest resources in Amazonia. Amazonia: deforestation and possible effects. Selected papers from a symposium held 38: 3-4. ORSTOM, Apartado 18-1209, Lima, Peru.

Except for those forests on periodically flooded alluvial soils which are traditionally cultivated, wetland forests have not been severely affected by deforestation because extreme ecological constraints make them unsuitable for most crops, timbers, and pastures. They are neglected in most plans for forest management. Floodplain forests cover approximately 2% of Brazilian Amazonia, and 12% of Peruvian Amazonia. Indigenous palms are present in all wetland forests in the Amazon basin. They provide many useful products, and have a significant place in the daily life of most inhabitants of Amazonia. Only a few species, however, have economic potential as edible fruit, oil, palm heart for canning, fibre, and starch, or constitute a gene resource that could be tapped for genetic improvement of cultivated or promising species. Principal species of present economic importance are Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria (fruits, and a drink, 'vino do assai'); Jessenia bataua (oil); and Mauritia flexuosa (fruit). They are not equally distributed in wetland forest ecosystems, but form dense and extensive populations in seasonal swamp forests of upland valleys, and on swampy areas which are permanently flooded by standing water in the floodplain of the main rivers. In both cases, soils are unsuitable for agriculture. Management of palms in these swamp forests could provide several products, such as oil or starch, which at present are obtained from deforested upland areas, and this could contribute to limiting destruction of the species-rich terra firme forests. Species which are currently locally exploited but are of no significant economic importance include Astrocaryum jauari (fruits, fibre); A. murumuru (oil); Geonoma spp., Hyospathe spp., Iriartea deltoidea (thatch, building materials); Leopoldinia spp. (fibre, thatch); Scheelea spp. (fruits used for charcoal); Phytelephas microcarpa (thatch, fibre, edible fruits, 'vegetable ivory' from seeds).

Lemos, S. G. M., E. J. Lourenco, et al. (1988). Obtainment of dehydrated cabbage-palm. Belem, PA [Brazil] : Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido, c1988 13.

Melo, C. F. M. d., W. C. Barbosa, et al. (1988). Obtainment of dehydrated "acai". Boletim de Pesquisa Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido(92). EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, CEP 66240, Belem, PA, Brazil.

In Brazil, fruits of the palm Euterpe oleracea are processed to produce a juice which is consumed locally and known as "acai" or "vinho". With the aim of enabling long-term storage of this highly perishable juice, a technology was developed for the manufacture of dehydrated "acai" in the form of powder. A Niro Atomizer Mobile Minor spray dryer, model AS0340D, was used. The juice was first centrifuged, in order to remove fibres and fragments of peel; it was then spray-dried under the following conditions: inlet air temperature, 135-140øC, exit air temperature, 85-90ø, operating pressure 4.9-6.2 kg/cm2. The powdered material was vacuum-packed in aluminized plastic tubes, with N injection. The product had a long shelf-life; after 115 days it was still in good condition for consumption. It is suggested that a different model of spray dryer, the Niro Atomizer Production Minor Model, be used, in order to improve the feeding of juice to the drying chamber and the discharge of the powder after drying.

Pollak, H., M. Mattos, et al. (1988). Obtainment of dehydrated cabbage-palm. Belem, PA [Brazil] : Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido, c1988 13.

Tostain, O. (1988). The nest and eggs of the calfbird Perissocephalus tricolor (Cotingidae), in French Guiana. Alauda 56(2): 153-158.

Two nests with eggs of the Calfbird, Perissocephalus tricolor, were found in the tropical rain forest of French Guiana on the 28th of October 1986 and the 28th of July 1987. The first egg was abandoned before hatching ahd the second one was unfertile and abandoned by the female while rotting. The two nests were platforms of pale twigs, the internal cup furnished with more thin and darker Eugenia twigs (Myrtaceae). One nest was constructed 5 m high on a Posoqueria latifolia, Rubiaceae, the other 5,5 m high on an Eugenia coffeifolia, Myrtaceae, two middle-high trees of the undergrowth. One egg collected measured 48,30 times 34,15 mm, and showed grey brown to deep brown spots and marks over a yellowish grey ground color. Probably regurgitated by the incubating bird, a number of Euterpe oleracea and Oenocarpus bacaba palms seeds and seedlings were found just beneath one nest.

Tostain, O. (1988). Le nid et la ponte de Perissocephalus tricolor Cotingidae, en Guyane Francais. Alauda 56(2): 153-158.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. G. Godoy, et al. (1987). Interspecific hybrids of heart of palm plants (Euterpe oleracea X Euterpe edulis. Bragantia 46(2): 343-364.

The vegetative growth and yield of the Euterpe oleracea x E. edulis hybrid palms were compared to the parental population under two different shading conditions. In both conditions hybrid palms were superior to the parents in growth and yield. The hybrids were vigorous, precocious and had tillering capacity. In spite of the hybrid heterogeneity, they appeared to offer a great potential for upgrading heart of palm planting material in Sao Paulo State, Brazil.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. G. Godoy, et al. (1987). Studies in the genera Euterpe and Bactris at the Campinas Agronomic Institute. Agronomico 39(2): 129-174. Inst. Agron., Campinas, SP, Brazil.

Five collections of 36 single-stemmed Euterpe entries, one from Argentina and the remainder from different parts of Brazil, were established in 1973 at 3 sites and are being assessed for stem circumference at harvest at different heights, number of leaves produced between consecutive measurements and length of the fourth leaf. Three collections of 29 multistemmed Euterpe entries, mostly from Para, Amazonas and Mato Grosso (Brazil), are assessed regularly for number of stems and stem circumference. Selection for earliness, uniformity, hardiness and healthy plants is taking place to obtain material for interspecific and intraspecific hybridization programmes. Variability between and within ecotypes of E. edulis is greater than that found in E. oleracea. Variation in stem number is considerable, 8-15 stems in some, rising to 24-45 in others. The former are the earlier. Plants with fewer stems also produce larger palm cabbage in a shorter time. Techniques for controlled pollination are described; most hybrids obtained to date involve E. oleracea and E. edulis. Interspecific and intraspecific fruit set varied between 43% and 89% and was directly related to pollen storage time and techniques of handling the inflorescence. Interspecific hybrids were superior to their parents in speed of germination, vegetative growth and resistance to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Glomerella cingulata]. Palm cabbage yields were 1.34 times higher than those of E. edulis and 7.72 times higher than those of E. oleracea. Stem number in the hybrids was 70-80. Stem number is identified as the character requiring emphasis in breeding; there is some evidence from reciprocal crosses that the character is under cytoplasmic control.

Jardim, M. A. G. and A. B. Anderson (1987). Management of native populations of the acai palm in the Amazon estuary. Preliminary results. Boletim de Pesquisa Florestal(15): 1-18. Museu Paraense 'Emilio Goeldi', CNPq/MCT, Brazil.

In a trial near Belem, Para, Brazil, indigenous practices for management of the multipurpose palm, Euterpe oleracea, (selective thinning of competing tree species and within palm clumps) concentrated fruit production on a smaller number of stems, facilitating simultaneous harvesting of fruit and palm hearts. Other uses include timber for construction.

Johnson, D. V. (1987). Native palms for Brazilian development: three major utilization regions as examples. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 1(2): 43-49. 3311 Stanford Street, Hyattsville, MD 20783, USA.

Tropical forest palms in Brazil were studied to determine their utilization for subsistence and commercial purposes, and to ascertain the conservation status of palms occurring within the Atlantic Forest. Three palm utilization regions were identified: (1) the Lower Amazon region, characterized by the acai palm (Euterpe oleracea), which is the major source of Brazilian palm hearts as well as a popular fruit, and at least 17 other useful palm species; (2) the babacu palm region of the Northeast, dominated by Orbignya martiana, an oilseed palm with numerous other uses; and (3) the piacava palm region of southern coastal Bahia state, part of the Atlantic Forest, where Attalea funifera is the source of a brush fibre and other products. A census of palm species of the entire Atlantic Forest revealed a high rate of palm endemism of 64% (49 of 76 species). According to the IUCN, 7 species are endangered, 3 vulnerable and 2 rare. It was concluded that further attention should be given to management of palm forests, economic development of promising palm species, palm ethnobotany and in situ conservation status of Brazil's 387 native palm species.

Anderson, A. B. and M. J. Balick (1986). Use and management of native forests dominated by acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the Amazon estuary. The palm tree of life: biology, utilization and conservation. Proceedings of a symposium at the annual meeting of the Society for Economic Botany held at the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, on 6: 144-154. Departamento de Botanica, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem 66.000, Para, Brazil.

A case study of Ilha das Oncas, near Belem, Brazil, showed that Euterpe oleracea provides a diverse array of market and subsistence products and indirectly supports a variety of other economic activities. Floodplain forests dominated by this palm are subjected to simple and inexpensive management practices which increase the yields of native products without the economic and social disruption produced by uncontrolled palm heart extraction. A beverage obtained from the fruit pulp is the most important product from E. oleracea in both market and subsistence economies in the Amazon estuary.

Strudwick, J., G. L. Sobel, et al. (1986). Uses of Euterpe oleracea Mart. in the Amazon Estuary, Brazil. The palm tree of life: biology, utilization and conservation. Proceedings of a symposium at the annual meeting of the Society for Economic Botany held at the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, on 6: 225-253. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458, USA.

The results of a field study are presented on the palm's habit and habitat, and its many local uses with emphasis on the utilization of the fruits for acai liquid and the palm-hearts which are processed on an industrial scale.

Tostain, O. (1986). Relationships between habitat structure and bird community structure along a successional gradient in the mangrove of French Guiana. Revue D'Ecologie La Terre Et La Vie 41(4): 315-342.

The relationships between bird community structure and habitat structure were studied along a gradient of successional changes in the mangrove of French Guiana. Sites representative of seven seral stages were sampled. The White Mangle (Avicennia germinans) is dominant in all mangrove profiles, from the sub-pioneer to the oldest stage. Further away from the river bank, a stage characterized by a larger number of Red Mangles (Rhizophora sp.), preceeds stage 6, distinguished by the presence of a large number of palms (Euterpe oleracea) and of trees bearing fleshy fruits, all characteristic of the swamp forest that replaces the mangrove when the oldest Avicennia die out. Seventy five species of birds (waterbirds, raptors, swifts and swallows excepted) were found to be associated with these successional stages. A marked change in bird community structure was found to take place at stages 5 and 6, when the occurrence of trees bearing fleshy fruits provides new feeding opportunities for frugivorous species. The progressive increase of frugivorous birds along the gradient is shown on figure 6. As a matter of fact, both changes in vegetation structure and floristic composition explain the changes observed in bird community structure. mchlt Foliage Stratification Diversity Index mchgt is the best descriptor for bird diversity in this kind of habitat. Along with common mangrove birds such as the Black-crested Antshrike (Sakesphorus canadensis) or the Bicolored Conebill (Conirostrum bicolor), the Blakish-grey Antshrike (Thamnophilus nigrocinereus) was found to be characteristic of the mangrove ecosystem of French Guiana. Some diurnal raptors proved also to be valuable indicators of this kind of habitat, for instance the Rufous Crab Hawk (Buteogallus aequinoctialis) at stages 3 to 5, or the Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture (Cathartes burrovianus) and the Slate-coloured Hawk (Leucopternis schistacea) at more mature stages.

Anderson, A. B., A. Gely, et al. (1985). An agroforestal system in the holm of the Amazonian estuary (island of Oncas, city of Barcarena, state of Para (Brazil)). Acta Amazonica 15(1-2 Suppl): 195-224.

Although agroforestry appears to be a viable form of land use in Amazonia, most of the examples reported in the literature describe systems used by indigenous tribes that are culturally distinct from the majority of rural inhabitants in the region. This paper describes an agroforestry system developed by a Luso-Brazilian family whose cultural habits are similar to those of the majority of rural inhabitants in the Amazon estuary. The system is utilized on sites subject to periodic and prolonged flooding, which imposes severe restrictions on conventional forms of agriculture. Three major management zones located near the family's house are identified and described in detail: house garden ("quintal"), managed floodplain forest ("floresta manejada"), and unmanaged floodplain forest ("mata"). The house garden is a relatively open area adjacent to the house that is used for domestic activities and for cultivation for a wide variety of exotic and native plants. The managed floodplain forest consists of small ( lt 1 ha) plots near the house and at scattered locations. In this management zone, the forest structure is left largely intact, although vines, understory shrubs, and selected tree species are periodically cut. The strategy in this zone is to favor the growth of economically important native tree species as well as introduced trees and shrubs. The unmanaged floodplain forest contains high densities of economically important plant species such as "acai" palm (Euterpe oleracea), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) "tapereba" (Sondias mombin), "andiroba" (Carapa guianensis), etc. Juxtaposition of these managdment zones within access of the house supports a wide variety of activities, including hunting; fishing; animal husbandry; and utilization of fruits, palm heart, wood, fertilizer, ornamental plants, fibers, latex, honey, oilseeds, medicines, utensils, etc. In addition to subsistence needs, these activities provide numerous marked products that are sold in the nearby markets of Belem, thus enabling the family to purchase primary agricultural products. The management and utilization of the floodplain forest sbd in conjunction with access to local markets sbd has thus permitted the family to replace conventional forms of agriculture with gathering of forest products. The latter appears to be more advantageous for the family studied and under certain conditions may be a viable land-use alternative in the Amazon estuary.

Lemos, S. G. M., E. J. Lourenco, et al. (1985). Inhibition of shikimate dehydrogenase from heart-of-palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.). Journal of Food Biochemistry 9(2): 105-116. Dep. of Food Nutr., Univ. Estadual Paulista `Julio de Mesquita Filho', Sao Paulo, Brazil

Shikimate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.25) was extracted from heart-of-palm and purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation and column chromatography on Sephadex G-25 and DEAE-Sephadex A-50. Mol. wt. was 50 000 as determined on Sephadex G-100. The enzyme was inhibited by metal ions and p-chloromercuribenzoate, the latter inhibition being reversed by cysteine. Protocatechuic acid was a competitive inhibitor (Ki 7.5 x 10---4M). Km values for shikimic acid and NADP-+ at pH 9.5 were 0.021mM and 0.011mM resp. [From En summ.]

Matsuno, T., K. Ohsawa, et al. (1985). Investigation of oil plants and characteristics of some oil plant seeds. Journal of Agricultural Science, Japan 29(3): 160-174. Tokyo University of Agriculture, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan.

A survey was carried out of the distribution, morphology, growing conditions and chemical composition of oil plants in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. They included the asai palm (Euterpe oleracea), babassu palm (Orbignya speciosa), physic nut (Jatropha curcas), neem (Azadirachta indica), Borneo tallow (Shorea stenoptera), Chinese tallow (Sapium sebiferum) and cuphea (Cuphea platycentra [ignea]).

Matsuno, T., K. Ohsawa, et al. (1985). [Investigation of oil plants and characteristics of some oil plant seeds.]. Journal of Agricultural Science [Tokyo Nogyo Daigaku Nogatu Shuho] 29(3): 160-174. NODAI Res. Inst., Tokyo Univ. of Agric., Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan

This paper reports a study on distribution, morphology, growing conditions and chemical composition of some oil plants in the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions, including Asia palm Euterpe oleracea, babassu palm Orbignya speciosa, physic nut Jatropha curcas, neem Azadirachta indica, Borneo tallo Shorea stenoptera, Chinese tallow Sapium sebiferum and cuphea Cuphea platycentra. Oil contents and fatty acid compositions of oils and hydrolysis products are tabulated. [From En summ.]

Yamazoe, G. and N. B. V. d. Moura (1985). Inhibition of shikimate dehydrogenase from heart-of-palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.). J Food Biochem. Westport, Conn. : Food and Nutrition Press. June: 105-116.

Bovi, M. L. A. (1984). Investigations in progress with the cabbage palm at the Agronomic Institute. Agronomico 36(2): 155-178. Divisao de Plantas Industriais, Instituto Agronomico, Campinas, SP, Brazil.

Among other activities with this crop, breeding work reported includes the collection of wild and cultivated material of Euterpe oleracea, E. esculenta and other species of the genus in northern Brazil and the establishment of germplasm collections at Campinas and 2 other sites. Yields were recorded and the quality of the edible parts was assessed in a wide range of this material, with a view to choosing parents for the production of hybrid seed. At all 3 sites, selection was carried out among spontaneous E. oleracea X E. edulis hybrids and early, vigorous, heat and disease-resistant genotypes were identified. Further selection in hybrid progenies of E. oleracea X E. edulis, E. badiocarpa X E. edulis and Euterpe spp. X E. edulis is reported. Adaptation to specific regions was identified in some of the hybrid material. Valuable characters noted in F2 hybrid populations included multiple shoots, earliness and resistance to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. When the seed parent is E. oleracea, this resistance may be used as a criterion for distinguishing true hybrids from the products of selfing.

Plotkin, M. J. and M. J. Balick (1984). Medicinal uses of South American palms. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 10(2): 157-179. Harvard Botanical Museum, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.

A review of the medicinal and other economic uses of 48 palms. The species yielding edible oils or oils suitable for soap manufacture listed are Acrocomia antioquensis, A. sclerocarpa, Attalea oleifera, A. princeps, A. spectabilis, Cocos coronata, C. yatay, Elaeis melanococca, Euterpe oleracea, Jessenia bataua, J. polycarpa, Manicaria saccifera, Mauritia flexuosa, Syagrus comosa, S. oleracea and S. picrophylla; other species yield oils suitable as emollients, for lighting, and industrial uses. Many of these species are also sources of hard fibres and edible fruits.

Silva, E. and J. N. Nogueira (1984). Study of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity in some fruits and vegetables. Solo 76(1): 43-51. Faculdade de Farmacia e Quimica, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 01.000 Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Potato cv. Bintje and pear, fig, banana, apple, peach, carrot, cauliflower and heart-of-palm were analysed for polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (PO) activity. PPO was considered the most important browning enzyme in the fruits and PO in the vegetables (including potato). During browning, PPO and PO activities in the fruits and PPO activity in the vegetables was linear; PO activity in the vegetables was exponential.

Lemos, S. G. M. d. and E. J. Lourenco (1983). [Isozymes of shikimate dehydrogenase of palm hearts (Euterpe oleracea).]. Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos 3(2): 136-143. Dep. de Alimentos e Nutr. Exp., FCF-USP, Sao Paulo, Brazil

(1982). Performance of the palm Euterpe oleracea Mar. in Sete Barras [Palm heart as source of wine, and stipe for cellulose, Brazil]. Comportamento do assai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) frente as condicoes de Sete Barras. Silvic Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo : Instituto Florestal: 837-840.

Bovi, M. L. A., J. Soave, et al. (1982). Performance of the palm Euterpe oleracea Mar. in Sete Barras [Palm heart as source of wine, and stipe for cellulose, Brazil]. Comportamento do assai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) frente as condicoes de Sete Barras. Silvic Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo : Instituto Florestal: 837-840.

Ferreira, V. L. P., M. L. A. Bovi, et al. (1982). [Palm hearts from a hybrid of Euterpe edulis and Euterpe oleracea. II. Physical and chemical evaluation.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 12: 243-254. Inst. de Technologia de Alimentos, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Comparative studies on palm hearts from (i) Euterpe edulis, (ii) E. oleracea and (iii) a natural (i) x (ii) hybrid are described. Tables and graphs of results are given. Quantity of citric acid needed to adjust pH to 4.3 was highest for (i), lowest for (iii). Proximate composition of (i), (ii) and (iii) resp. was (1% DM basis): crude protein 23.72, 18.12 and 21.60; fat 2.77, 2.60 and 2.54; reducing sugar 6.59, 12.02 and 6.20; total sugar 13.59, 27.81 and 23.60; fibre 10.77, 13.26 and 15.26; ash 14.90, 11.00 and 15.61; tannin 1.86, 2.48 and 1.48. Vitamin C contents were 126, 100 and 187 mg/100 g resp.; HCN contents were 10.3, 10.6 and 7.5 mg/100 g resp. Data are also given for fatty acid, mineral and amino acid composition of (i), (ii) and (iii). [See preceding abstr. for part I.]

Ferreira, V. L. P., M. L. A. Bovi, et al. (1982). [Palm hearts from a hybrid of Euterpe edulis and Euterpe oleracea. I. Physical, sensory and biochemical characteristics.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 12: 27-42. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Comparative studies were conducted in palm hearts from (i) Euterpe edulis, (ii) E. oleracea and (iii) a natural hybrid between (i) and (ii). Data are presented for dimensions, acidity and polyphenol oxidase and ascorbate oxidase activities of the fresh palm hearts, and for general characteristics, colour texture, acidity, pH, and sensory quality of the canned product. The results show that the hybrid has a better yield than (i) or (ii); palm hearts from the hybrid are slightly larger than those from (i), markedly larger than those from (ii). Colour of palm hearts from the hybrid was more yellow than that of palm hearts from the 2 parent spp. Sensory quality of the hybrid palm hearts did not differ markedly from that of (i) or (ii).

Yamazoe, G., N. B. V. d. Moura, et al. (1982). Growing native Brazilian trees for non-timber products. Silvicultura em Sao Paulo 2: 2.

Seven papers from the conference, dealing with: combined cultivation of Ilex paraguariensis and maize (Schreiner, H.G.; 812-813); Euterpe oleracea (Yamazoe, G.; Moura Neto, B.V. de; 837-840, 7 ref.); rubber (4 papers by Kalil Filho, A.N.; et al.; 996-1027, many ref.); and Orbignya (Pereira, A.P.; Pereira, M. da C.; 1168-1174, 2 ref.).

Ichimaru, D. L. and A. M. Sales (1980). [Comparison between four methods for determination of tryptophan in foods.]. Boletim do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Brazil 17(3): 297-307. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Comparative studies were conducted on 4 methods for detn. of tryptophan in protein extracts from foods: (i) reaction of tryptophan with glyoxilic acid, and detn. of the reaction product by colorimetry at 545 nm; (ii) reaction of tryptophan with ninhydrin in a 3:2 formic acid/hydrochloric acid mixture, and detn. of the reaction product by colorimetry at 390 nm; (iii) hydrolysis of the protein with pronase followed by reaction of the tryptophan with dimethylaminobenzaldehyde reagent and detn. of extinction value at 590 nm; and (iv) basic hydrolysis followed by ion-exchange chromatographic detn. on a styrene-divinylbenzene column (elution with citrate buffer, pH 5.0). Trials were conducted on 3 kidney bean var., 4 soybean var., wheat, rice, maize, palm hearts of 3 spp. (Euterpe edulis, Guilielma gasipes and a Euterpe edulis x E. oleracea hybrid), pigeon peas (Cajanus flavus) and jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis). Tables of results are given. It is concluded that (iv) has the best accuracy and reproducibility; however, it requires specialized equipment and is more time-consuming than the other methods.

Quast, D. G. and L. W. Bernhardt (1978). Progress in palmito (heart-of-palm) processing research. Journal of Food Protection 41(8): 667-674. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, c.p. 139, 13,100 Campinas, SP., Brazil

Palmito is a gourmet product obtained from the young and tender leaves of certain palm trees. Brazil is the main producer and exporter of canned, acidified palmito. In this paper the main aspects of raw material procurement, processing and packaging are reviewed. Most of the original work was done at the Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (ITAL) in Campinas, Brazil. The palmito is mainly produced from 2 spp. [Euterpe edulis Mart. and E. oleracea] of naturally growing palms. There are 2 main technical problems in palmito processing: discoloration of the naturally white product and safe acidification to inhibit Clostridium botulinum growth. Both problems have been solved adequately in laboratory and pilot plant work. Acceptance and implementation of these technological developments by the small palmito canneries is essential to obtain products acceptable to the international market.

Uzelac, M. and I. N. Trigueiro (1978). [Analyses of sugars in palm hearts of 3 species, Euterpe edulis, Euterpe oleracea and Syagrus oleracea.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 9: 63-83. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Sugars present in palm hearts of the species (i) Euterpe edulis, (ii) Euterpe oleracea and (iii) Syagrus oleracea were determined as the appropriate trimethylsilyl derivatives by GLC on OV-1 and OV-17 columns. Chromatograms of results are given. Free sugars detected included fructose, sucrose, alpha-glucose, beta-glucose and galactose; inositol and mannitol were also detected. Galactose was present in (i) and (ii), but not in (iii). Mannitol concn. were much higher in (ii) than in (i) or (iii). An unidentified component was present in the free sugar fraction of (ii), and also in hydrolysed samples of (i) and (iii). The possible relationship of these differences in sugar composition to differences in flavour of the palm hearts is discused.

Calzavara, B. B. G. (1977). Occurrence of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. (Von Arx.) on seedlings of palms (Euterpe edulis Mart., Euterpe oleracea Mart, and Euterpe badiocarpa Barb. rodr.). Summa Phytopathol, Jan/Mar 3(1): 93-95.

Bovi, M. L. A. and M. Cardoso (1976). The possibilities of the assai palm [Euterpe oleracea] along the estuary of the Amazon River [Culture, chemical composition of fruit]. Ser Conf Cursos Reun Interam Inst Agric Sci 93: 165-207.

Ferreira, V. L. P., E. E. Miya, et al. (1976). [Comparative study on the physical, chemical and organoleptic properties of canned palm hearts of 3 species.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 7(2): 389-416. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Av. Brasil 2880, Caixa Postal 139, Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brazil

Comparative studies were conducted on the quality of canned palm hearts (of the species Euterpe edulis, E. oleracea and Syagrus oleracea), after storage of the canned product for less than180 days. Quality aspects considered include colour, appearance, texture, flavour, and the incidence of defects (especially mechanical damage); changes in the pH of the palm hearts during the first 15 days after canning were also studied. Tables, graphs and photographs of results are given. Overall, it is concluded that canned E. edulis and E. oleracea were of acceptable quality; canned S. oleracea had an unacceptably bitter flavour. Overall, E. oleracea had the highest and S. oleracea the lowest incidence of defects; most quality defects could be minimized or prevented by careful control of processing. [See preceding abstr.]

Paula, J. E. d. (1976). Germination of "acaizeiro" [Euterpe oleracea] seeds. I. Bragantia 35(1).

Quast, D. G. and L. W. Bernhardt (1976). [Titration curves of palmito (palm hearts) of five species of palms.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 7(2): 241-264. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Av. Brasil 2880, Caixa Postal 139, Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brazil

Adjustment of the pH of palm hearts to values less than4.6 before canning reduces the severity of heat-sterilization conditions required; however, palm hearts of different species differ in buffering capacity. Studies were therefore conducted to evaluate the titration curves (against citric acid) of palm hearts of 5 species (Euterpe edulis, E. oleracea, Attalea dubia, Syagrus oleracea, Scheelea phalerata). Tables and graphs of results are given, showing the quantity of acid required to reach selected pH values, and the buffering power of the palm hearts. Data are given separately for the upper and lower parts of the palm hearts. The results showed considerable differences between species; E. edulis hearts required 50-80% more acid than E. oleracea. Pieces from the lower end of the palm heart required 50-100% more acid than those from the upper end. Application of these results to calculation of the quantity of acid required for acidification of palm hearts before canning is discussed.

Uzelac, M., M. Shimokomaki, et al. (1976). [Comparative studies on sweet palm hearts (from Euterpe edulis and Euterpe oleracea) and bitter palm hearts (from Syagrus oleracea). II. Phenolic compounds.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 7(2): 371-383. Inst. de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Av. Brasil 2880, Caixa Postal 139, Campinas, Sao Paolo, Brazil

Phenols in palm hearts of the 3 species studied were fractionated by column chromatography on Sephadex G-25; they were then analysed by paper chromatography or TLC, using butanol/acetic acid/water (4:1:5) and butanol/ethanol/water (5:1:2) solvent systems. Phenolic compound flecks on the developed chromatograms were detected on the basis of their colour and UV fluorescence, and by spraying with AlCl3, SbCl4 or FeCl3/KgFe(CN)6 reagents. Tables and diagrams of results are given. On the basis of the results, it is concluded that flavonoids and phenolic glycosides are present in palm hearts; the possible relation of the concn. and structure of the phenols to the bitterness of palm hearts is discussed. [See Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (1975) 6 (1) 69-80 for part I.]

Granville, J. J. d. (1975). Comparative studies of the hearts of sweet palms (Euterpe edulis Mart. and Euterpe oleracea Mart.) and those of bitter palms (Syagrus oleracea Becc.). i. chemical composition: peptides and free amino acids. Colet Inst Tecnol Aliment 6(pt. 1): 69-80.

Quast, D. G., M. M. Zapata, et al. (1975). [Preliminary study on penetration of acidity into canned palm hearts.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 6(2): 341-349.

Studies on changes in the pH at various points in palm hearts (Euterpe edulis, Euterpe oleracea and Syagrus oleracea) canned in acidified brine are discussed. Tables of data are given for pH in the brine and in the centre and in outer parts of the palm heart after holding in acidified brine for 4 h-1 yr. The results show that pH equilibration is relatively slow; several wk were required for the centre to reach an acceptable pH. Acid penetration was more rapid axially than radially; the rate of acidification may be maximized by cutting the palm hearts into sections approx. 3 cm long. The results are considered in relation to the need for acidification of the product to prevent growth of Clostridium botulinum in samples heat treated at relatively low temp. (less than100 degree C).

Shimkokomaki, M., C. Abdala, et al. (1975). Anatomy of Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Palmae of the Amazonia). Acta Amazonica, Dec 5(3): 265-278.

Shimokomaki, M., C. Abdala, et al. (1975). [Comparative studies of sweet (jucara - Euterpe edulis Mart. and acai, Euterpe oleracea Mart.) and bitter (guariroba - Syagrus oleracea Becc.) species of palm hearts. I. Chemical composition: peptides and free amino acids.]. Coletanea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos 6(1): 69-80.

Chemical composition of the hearts of 3 palm species, were compared in order to evaluate their food use and discover the reasons for differences in taste. Values for chemical composition, free and total amino acid concn. and fatty acid composition are tabulated. The contribution of phenolic compounds (tannins) and amino acids to the flavour is discussed.

Yamazoe, G. and N. B. V. d. Moura (1974). Survey of the structure of pneumatophores of two species on hydromorphic soils in Guyana: Mauritia flexuosa L. and Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Palmae), generalization on the ro ot respiratory system of other palm trees. Cah Ser Biol ORSTOM Off Rech Sci Tech Outre Mer, June 23: 3-22.

Benk, E. (1971). [On the knowledge of foreign vegetables and vegetable fruits.] Zur Kenntnis auslaendischer oder aus dem Ausland stammender Gemuese und Gemuesefruechte. Industrielle Obst und Gemueseverwertung 56(15): 445-448. Chem. Landesuntersuchungsanstalt, Sigmaringen, German Federal Republic

Knowledge of the following vegetables and their composition is reviewed: artichokes (Cynara scolymus), aubergines (Solanum melongena), avocado (Persea americana), bamboo shoots (Bambusa arundinacea), broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis), chicory (Cichorium intybus), Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), okra (Hibiscus esculentus), Assai palm (Euterpe edulis), radish (Raphanus sativus), vine leaves (Vitis vinifera), sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata).

Bovi, M. L. A., P. F. d. A. Tedrus, et al. (1909). Variability among isolates of Xylaria cubensis as determined by isozyme analysis and somatic incompatibility tests. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 592-596.

Bovi, M. L. A., P. F. d. A. Tedrus, et al. (1909). Variability among isolates of Xylaria cubensis as determined by isozyme analysis and somatic incompatibility tests. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 592-596.

Iaderoza, M., V. L. S. Baldini, et al. (1909). Letendraeopsis palmarum, a new genus and species of loculoascomycetes. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 254-258.

Iaderoza, M., V. L. S. Baldini, et al. (1909). Letendraeopsis palmarum, a new genus and species of loculoascomycetes. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 254-258.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1909). The foliar fungal endophytes of the Amazonian palm Euterpe oleracea. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 376-385.

Rodrigues, K. F. and G. J. Samuels (1909). The foliar fungal endophytes of the Amazonian palm Euterpe oleracea. Mycologia. Bronx : New York Botanical Garden: 376-385.

Haggar, J. P. and J. J. Ewel (1211). Primary productivity and resource partitioning in model tropical ecosystems. Ecology 78(4): 1211-1221.

The diversity of plant life forms in tropical forests affords the opportunity for assembly of plant combinations, both natural and managed, that make full use of resources and sustain high productivity. The influence of combining life forms on productivity and resource use was evaluated using three fast-growing tree species (Hyeronima alchomeoides, Cedrela odorata, and Cordia alliodora); each species was grown alone and with two perennial, large-stature, self-supporting monocots (Euterpe oleracea and Heliconia imbricata). Aboveground net primary productivity was extremely high in all stands. The monocots did not contribute significantly to the productivity of the Hyeronima polycultures, which was 4.5-8.4 g cntdot m-2 cntdot d-1 between 18 and 36 mo. In contrast, the monocots accounted for 57% of the productivity (9.7 g cntdot m-2 cntdot d-1) of Cedrela polycultures and 67% of the productivity (6.8 g cntdot m-2 cntdot d-1) of the Cordia polycultures, by age 3 yr. The leaf area and density of fine roots in the Cedrela and Cordia polycultures were also significantly increased by the presence of the monocots, reaching or surpassing the levels found in the Hyeronima stands. The high productivity of Hyeronima, coupled with poor growth of its interplanted monocots, indicated that Hyeronima was able to achieve nearly complete use of resources. Ecosystem productivity and resource capture were increased when the monocots were grown with the other two tree species, and this occurred because of the inability of the tree species to completely utilize available resources, which provided an opportunity for the monocots to flourish in the understory. Monocot productivity in the Cedrela stands was additive to that of the trees, indicating complementary resource use between the monocots and this tree species. In the case of Cordia, tree productivity was slowed by the monocots, but this decline was more than compensated for by the high productivity of the associated monocots. Whether in natural forests or human-constructed agroforestry systems, the presence of dominant species that do not fully exploit all available resources allows the coexistence of other species and creates the potential for complementary resource use. The resource use characteristics of such species should be a key consideration in forest restoration efforts and in the design of sustainable land use systems.

Brondizio, E. S. Forest Farmers: Human and Landscape Ecology of Caboclo Populations in the Amazon Estuary (Euterpe Oleracea, Brazil, Agroforestry). 57: 4275. Moran-emilio-f

This study is about agriculture intensification and food production systems in the Amazon estuary, and their historical, socio-economical and environmental dimensions. Different land use and agricultural strategies are compared, but special attention is given to floodplain agroforestry, primarily Acai agroforestry (Euterpe oleracea). Acai fruit is a top-ranked staple food, and its production system is the main economic activity for a large number of estuarine towns. This study discusses the application of agricultural intensification measures to agroforestry production systems, such as the case of acai Intensification of acai agroforestry is studied in terms of management levels, production and productivity, and market, and compared to other crops in terms of its land use impact. The work is based on the integration of interdisciplinary and multi-level research methods that combines multi-temporal remote sensing (Landsat TM satellite images), detail vegetation and agricultural field studies, socioeconomic assessment, and ethnographic interviews to provide a nested data set that can be scaled upwards and downwards between local and regional scales. The role of land tenure, technology, and market is assessed in order to provide a fine grain analysis of the production systems, the dynamics of human impact on the landscape, and their adaptation to features of it. Acai agroforestry based on locally developed technology presents an outstanding example of intensification of food production in the region without displacement of local populations, without deforestation, without constraining diversification of land use, and without destruction of the resource basis, providing at the same time the most important source of income for local populations. In the light of the intensification of floodplain agroforestry systems and the role they play in regional agriculture, this study aims to contribute to constructing an identity for rural producers, shifting to a paradigm that moves from viewing caboclos as extractivists to seeing them as forest farmers.

Rodrigues, K. F., H. Pollak, et al. Endophytic Fungi in the Tropical Palm Euterpe Oleracea Mart (Fungi, Xylaria Cubensis). 53: 5037. Samuels-gary-j

The occurrence of foliar endophytes in the Amazonian palm Euterpe oleracea Mart. was investigated during January and September of 1989 and 1990. Endophytic fungi were isolated from leaflets of ten 6- to 18-month-old seedlings, and of ten 5- to 20-year-old trees located at the Combu Island, a river-island located in the Brazilian Amazon estuary near Belem. Endophytic colonization frequencies were positively correlated with leaf age, plant developmental stages, and subsite. Mature leaves showed higher fungal colonization than the young ones; seedlings were more intensely colonized than trees. Community ordination analysis (MDS) has shown that trees and seedlings located at different subsites were colonized by distinct endophytic communities. Fifty-seven endophytic species and six